AP US History

Lesson 1.1 · Period 1 · CED topic 1.2

Native American societies before European contact

Before 1492 hundreds of distinct societies lived in North America, separated mostly by environment. Maize, domesticated in Mesoamerica, spread north into the Southwest and later the Eastern Woodlands; where it grew well it produced surplus, permanent towns, and hierarchy. Where it did not, people lived well on fish, game, and wild plants.

Compare by environment first, then by the social structure it supported.

Lesson 1.2 · Period 1 · CED topics 1.3–1.4

European exploration and the Columbian Exchange

Europeans did not sail west out of curiosity. Hunger for Asian spices and gold, rivalry among new monarchies, and missionary confidence pushed outward; the caravel and compass made the gamble survivable. Portugal worked around Africa. Castile, fresh from conquering Granada in January 1492, backed Columbus going west.

Lesson 1.3 · Period 1 · CED topics 1.5–1.6

Spanish colonial society: labor, caste, and cultural encounter

Conquest raised a question Spain could not dodge: what may Christians lawfully do to the people they now rule? Spain answered with law before morals. The encomienda handed settlers the labor and tribute of Native villages in return for protecting and Christianizing them; in practice it was lethal forced labor.

Unit 1 review · 10 multiple-choice · 2 short-answer

Period 1 review: 1491–1607

Ten stimulus- and knowledge-based multiple-choice questions and two short-answer questions covering Native societies before contact, European exploration and the Columbian Exchange, and the labor and caste systems of early Spanish America: click an option to see why each answer is right or wrong, then write the SAQs on paper before opening the model.

Multiple choice

1. Description of: an engraving by Theodor de Bry after a watercolor by John White, published in Thomas Hariot's A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia (Frankfurt, 1590).

   The engraving shows the Algonquian town of Secota. Houses of bent saplings and mats stand in a row along a path. Three separate plots of maize are drawn at different stages of ripeness, with a smaller patch of tobacco and one of sunflowers beside them. A group sits on the ground at a communal meal, and a fire burns at a ceremony in the open.

   The image would be most useful to a historian studying which of the following?

   The relationship between maize agriculture and settled village life among Eastern Woodlands peoples The mobile bison-hunting economies of the Great Plains The construction of large earthen mound centers by Mississippian chiefdoms The irrigation systems that supported multi-story adobe towns in the arid Southwest

   Correct. The engraving shows fixed houses along a path next to maize planted in staggered plots, plus tobacco and a communal feast: exactly the package of settled farming, surplus, and village ritual that maize cultivation supported in the Eastern Woodlands.

   Plains peoples before 1492 followed bison on foot and moved camp seasonally; nothing in this image shows herds, portable housing, or hunting. The misconception to avoid is treating one Native image as evidence for Native societies in general.

   Mississippian centers such as Cahokia were defined by huge earthen mounds and planned plazas, and the engraving shows no mound at all. Secota was a coastal Algonquian town of a few hundred people, not a mound-building chiefdom.

   Southwestern irrigation depended on ditches and check dams in an arid climate, and the engraving depicts a well-watered coastal region with no irrigation works. The plots here are rain-fed, which is why they could be planted in sequence.

2. Which of the following best explains why peoples of the Pacific Northwest built large, permanent villages without adopting agriculture?

   Maize reached the Pacific Northwest earlier than it reached other regions of North America Salmon runs and sea mammals supplied a food surplus reliable enough to support permanent settlement Regular trade with Mississippian chiefdoms supplied them with maize from the Mississippi valley They irrigated river valleys in order to grow wheat and barley

   Maize spread north from Mesoamerica into the Southwest and later the Eastern Woodlands; it never became a staple on the Northwest coast. This choice assumes farming is the only route to permanent settlement, which is the misconception the region disproves.

   Correct. Dense, predictable salmon runs plus whales, seals, and shellfish produced storable surplus without planting, so Northwest peoples built plank-house villages, accumulated wealth, and developed ranked societies: surplus, not farming, is what permanence required.

   There is no evidence of a regular maize trade between the Mississippi valley and the Pacific coast, and Cahokia's exchange network ran east and south. Long-distance trade moved prestige goods such as copper and marine shell, not bulk food.

   Wheat and barley are Eurasian grains that arrived in the Americas only with Europeans after 1492. Placing them in a pre-contact Native society is a chronology error worth training yourself to catch.

3. The northward spread of maize cultivation most directly contributed to which of the following in North America before 1492?

   The abandonment of hunting and gathering by nearly all peoples north of Mexico The growth of long-distance trade in horses across the Great Plains The development of permanent settlements and more hierarchical societies in some regions The unification of Native peoples into a single political confederation

   Maize spread unevenly and never displaced hunting, fishing, and gathering across the continent: the Great Basin, the Plains, and the Northwest coast all stayed outside it. Overstating a change is one of the most common ways to lose a causation question.

   Horses were brought to the Americas by the Spanish; Plains peoples acquired them only after contact, and the mounted bison-hunting culture is a post-1500 development. Reading the horse back into the pre-contact Plains is a standard trap.

   Correct. Where maize produced a dependable surplus (the Southwest, the Mississippi valley, the Northeast) it freed labor from daily food-getting, and that surplus supported permanent towns, public building such as Cahokia's mounds, and ranked leadership.

   Confederacies such as the Haudenosaunee united a handful of nations, not the continent, and hundreds of distinct societies with different languages persisted. Treating Native America as politically unified erases the diversity the CED asks you to explain.

4. Source: Christopher Columbus, letter to Luis de Santángel, 1493 (English translation).

   They are so ingenuous and free with all they have, that no one would believe it who has not seen it; of anything that they possess, if it be asked of them, they never say no; on the contrary, they invite you to share it and show as much love as if their hearts went with it.

   A historian would most likely use the excerpt to support which of the following claims about early Spanish expansion?

   Columbus recognized that he had reached a landmass previously unknown to Europeans Europeans described the peoples they encountered in ways that made conversion and domination appear easy Columbus's reports persuaded the Spanish Crown to prohibit coerced Native labor Columbus intended to found self-governing farming settlements modeled on later English colonies

   Columbus insisted to the end of his life that he had reached the Indies, and the letter itself calls the islands he found part of the Indies. The excerpt is about the people he met, not about his geography.

   Correct. Writing to a financier of the voyage, Columbus presents the Taíno as generous and incapable of refusal: a portrait that made them look ready for conversion and easy to command, and that he paired elsewhere in the same letter with taking possession for the Crown.

   The opposite followed: the encomienda began in 1503, and the New Laws restricting it came only in 1542, after decades of campaigning by Bartolomé de las Casas. Do not let a source's warm tone stand in for a policy it never produced.

   Spanish expansion sought tribute, souls, and precious metals through the encomienda and, later, the mission system, not family farming settlements. Reading English colonial patterns back onto 1493 is an anachronism.

5. Which of the following best describes the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)?

   A papal decree prohibiting the enslavement of Native peoples in the Americas An alliance of Spain and France against English and Dutch exploration An agreement dividing claims to newly encountered lands between Spain and Portugal along a north–south line A treaty ending Spanish military campaigns against the Aztec empire

   No such prohibition existed in 1494; papal and royal debate over Native status came later, in the Requerimiento of 1513, the New Laws of 1542, and the Valladolid debate of 1550–51. The treaty settled claims between Christian monarchs, not the rights of Native peoples.

   France, England, and the Netherlands were not parties and later rejected the line outright. Tordesillas was a bilateral Iberian settlement brokered with papal backing, not a coalition against rivals.

   Correct. The line assigned lands west of it to Castile and east of it to Portugal, which left Portugal the African sea route to Asia and, once the line was measured, the Brazilian coast claimed in 1500.

   The Spanish campaign against Tenochtitlan came a generation later, in 1519–21, and ended in conquest rather than treaty. Watch the dates: a 1494 agreement cannot resolve a 1521 event.

6. Description of: a table historians use to summarize the principal biological transfers of the Columbian Exchange after 1492.

   Direction	Selected transfers
   Eastern Hemisphere → Americas	wheat, sugarcane, rice; horses, cattle, pigs, sheep; smallpox, measles, influenza
   Americas → Eastern Hemisphere	maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, beans, cacao, tobacco; silver

   The transfers summarized in the table most directly contributed to which of the following in the period 1492–1607?

   A population collapse in Europe comparable to the one in the Americas A catastrophic decline in Native American populations and a growing Spanish reliance on enslaved African labor The end of long-distance trade between Europe and Asia The collapse of the Spanish silver economy in the sixteenth century

   The exchange of disease was drastically one-sided: smallpox, measles, and influenza killed most Native people in the Caribbean and Mesoamerica within a century, while Europe saw no comparable die-off. Assuming the exchange was symmetrical is the misconception this item targets.

   Correct. Epidemic disease destroyed the Native workforce the encomienda depended on, and Spanish colonists answered the shortage by importing enslaved Africans, so a biological transfer produced a labor system.

   American silver did the reverse: Potosí, opened in 1545, financed a far larger European trade with Asia, since silver was what Chinese markets would take. The exchange intensified Eurasian commerce rather than ending it.

   The silver economy expanded during this period rather than collapsing; Potosí's output underwrote the Spanish Crown's wars and debts for decades. Inflation and repeated royal bankruptcies did strain Spain in these same years, but strain is not collapse: silver shipments were still rising at the end of the sixteenth century.

7. Which of the following best describes the encomienda system in Spanish America?

   A grant of Native labor and tribute to a Spanish settler in exchange for protection and religious instruction A royal monopoly over the silver mines at Potosí and Zacatecas A grant of land to any settler who paid the passage of another migrant A network of missions in which Native communities held land in common and chose their own clergy

   Correct. Beginning in 1503 the Crown assigned settlers the labor and tribute of Native villages, framing it as a reciprocal duty to protect and Christianize; in practice it functioned as lethal forced labor and was the target of the New Laws of 1542.

   The Crown did claim a share of mining output, the royal fifth, but that was a tax, not the encomienda. Conflating a revenue claim with a labor grant misses what the system actually distributed: people's work.

   That describes the headright system in the English Chesapeake after 1618, not Spanish America. Mixing the two empires' labor institutions is one of the most frequent Period 1–2 errors.

   Missions did gather converts into supervised villages, but under the authority of friars, and Native communities did not select clergy. Missions were a parallel institution to the encomienda, not a description of it.

8. The Valladolid debate of 1550–51 most directly concerned which of the following questions?

   Whether Spain or Portugal held the rightful claim to Brazil Whether Native peoples were rational human beings whose status limited what conquest could lawfully do Whether Protestant worship should be permitted in Spain's American colonies Whether enslaved Africans should be freed upon baptism

   Brazil had been settled under the Tordesillas line since 1500 and was not in dispute in 1550. Valladolid was a debate about people, not about boundaries.

   Correct. Bartolomé de las Casas argued that Native peoples were rational and free and that conquest by force was unlawful; Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda argued they were natural inferiors whose subjugation was justified. The argument decided nothing outright, but it shaped Spanish law and later criticism of empire.

   Spain permitted no Protestant worship anywhere in its empire and did not debate the point; the Inquisition enforced Catholic uniformity. This option imports a later northern-European religious conflict.

   African slavery was not the question at Valladolid: one reason the debate is uncomfortable, since Las Casas himself had once proposed importing enslaved Africans to relieve Native laborers before repudiating the idea.

9. Description of: an engraving by Theodor de Bry published in a Latin edition of Bartolomé de las Casas's account of the Spanish conquest (Frankfurt, 1598).

   The engraving shows armored Spanish soldiers on a shoreline attacking unarmed Native people, some of whom flee toward the trees while others lie on the ground. War dogs strain at the soldiers' hands. Ships ride at anchor in the background. De Bry, a Protestant engraver working in Germany, never crossed the Atlantic; he based the scene on Las Casas's printed text.

   Which of the following best explains why images like this one circulated widely in northern Europe in the late sixteenth century?

   They were commissioned by the Spanish Crown to recruit settlers for the Americas They recorded firsthand observations the engraver had made in the Caribbean Protestant rivals of Spain used them to condemn Spanish rule and to justify their own colonial ambitions They documented abuses that the Spanish Crown had already eliminated by 1598

   No crown advertises atrocity. Spanish authorities were embarrassed by Las Casas's account, and it was foreign presses, not Spanish ones, that kept reprinting it with illustrations.

   The source line says plainly that de Bry never crossed the Atlantic and worked from a printed text. Reading an engraving as eyewitness evidence is the exact sourcing mistake the exam rewards you for catching.

   Correct. English, Dutch, and German Protestants, at war or in commercial rivalry with Spain, reprinted Las Casas with graphic engravings to build what historians call the Black Legend, which made Spanish empire look uniquely cruel and their own look like a rescue.

   The New Laws of 1542 restricted the encomienda but were gutted after settler revolt in Peru, and coerced labor continued through the repartimiento and the mines. The abuses were reduced on paper, not eliminated in fact.

10. Which of the following best describes the casta system of Spanish America?

    A council of Native leaders that advised the viceroys of New Spain and Peru A body of law that abolished the encomienda and freed Native laborers in 1542 A system of schools founded by missionaries to train Native clergy A hierarchy of social and legal status based on ancestry, with Spanish-born peninsulares at the top

    Spanish America did preserve some Native local officials, but the casta system was a ranking of people by descent, not an advisory institution. The word names a hierarchy, not a council.

    That describes the New Laws of 1542, which limited the encomienda and barred Native enslavement before settler resistance gutted them by 1545. Laws and social hierarchies are different categories of historical development.

    Missions did teach converts, and a few schools trained Native elites, but that was a small part of the mission program and not what casta means. Do not let a familiar institution stand in for an unfamiliar term.

    Correct. Peninsulares born in Spain ranked above American-born criollos, with mestizos and mulattoes in between and Native peoples and Africans at the bottom: a legal and social order that determined office-holding, taxation, and marriage.

Short answer

1. Answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE difference between Native American societies of the Southwest and those of the Great Plains in the period before 1492.
   2. Briefly explain ONE way the natural environment contributed to the difference you described in (a).
   3. Briefly explain ONE way European contact changed Native American societies in the Americas in the period 1492–1607.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: a specific, accurate contrast, such as Pueblo irrigated maize farming in permanent multi-story adobe towns versus mobile bison hunting on foot with seasonal camps; or settled versus mobile settlement patterns; or farming versus hunting as the main food source. Do not accept: "they lived in different ways" with no specifics; a description of only one region; or any claim that Plains peoples hunted on horseback before 1492.
   • (b) Accept: an explanation of how, not a restatement; aridity in the Southwest required irrigation ditches and check dams, and the resulting surplus made permanent towns worth building; or the short-grass Plains could not support reliable maize farming, so people followed the herds that could live there. Do not accept: repeating the difference from (a); "the environment was different"; or naming a region with no causal link.
   • (c) Accept: epidemic disease (smallpox, measles, influenza) and population collapse; coerced labor under the encomienda or the mission system; the introduction of horses and other European livestock, whose effects on Plains hunting and warfare came in the generations that followed; new crops; religious conversion and syncretic worship. Explanation of how or why is required. Do not accept: developments outside 1492–1607 (removal, reservations, the Dawes Act); or a general statement that Europeans harmed Native peoples with no mechanism.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a In the Southwest, Pueblo peoples grew maize using irrigation and lived year-round in permanent multi-story adobe towns like the ones at Chaco Canyon. On the Great Plains, most peoples hunted bison on foot and moved their camps with the herds instead of staying in one place.

   b The Southwest is dry enough that rainfall alone could not raise a maize crop, so Pueblo peoples dug ditches and built check dams to capture what little runoff there was. Once irrigation made harvests reliable, there was a surplus worth storing and a reason to build permanently in one spot. The short-grass Plains could not support that kind of farming, so people there depended on animals that moved, which meant they had to move too.

   c Europeans carried smallpox and other diseases that Native peoples had never been exposed to, and epidemics killed most of the population of the Caribbean and Mesoamerica within about a century. That collapse destroyed whole communities and left survivors under heavier Spanish labor demands, because the encomienda still required tribute and work from far fewer people.

2. Description of: an illustration from Book XII of the Florentine Codex, compiled in Nahuatl and Spanish between about 1575 and 1577 by the Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún with Nahua writers and artists.

   The drawing shows Nahua people lying on mats, faces and bodies covered with sores. One figure leans over to tend a patient; elsewhere a person sits beside someone who has stopped moving. The accompanying Nahuatl text describes a sickness that spread through the city during the war with the Spanish, killing many and leaving the survivors too weak to care for one another or to gather food.

   Using the image, answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE historical development depicted in the image.
   2. Briefly explain ONE cause of the development you described in (a).
   3. Briefly explain ONE effect of that development on labor systems in Spanish America in the period 1492–1607.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: an epidemic, smallpox is the standard identification, among the Nahua during or just after the Spanish invasion of Mexico; or mass death and social breakdown from disease during the conquest. The description must come from the image and its text. Do not accept: "people were sick" with no historical development named; or a claim that the image shows a battle, a famine caused only by war, or deaths from Spanish weapons.
   • (b) Accept: Eurasian diseases crossed the Atlantic with Europeans and the people and animals they brought; Native peoples had no prior exposure and therefore no acquired immunity; dense urban settlement at Tenochtitlan and the disruption of the siege accelerated spread. The response must explain how or why, not just name smallpox. Do not accept: "the Spanish invaded" with no disease mechanism; or the claim that the Spanish deliberately engineered the epidemic in 1520.
   • (c) Accept: the collapse of the Native workforce undermined the encomienda and later the repartimiento; Spanish colonists and the Crown turned to an expanding trade in enslaved Africans, especially on Caribbean and coastal sugar plantations; coerced draft labor in silver mines fell on a much smaller surviving population. The effect must be tied to labor. Do not accept: effects only on religion, culture, or politics; or the anachronistic claim that the New Laws of 1542 ended forced labor.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a The image shows a smallpox epidemic among the Nahua during the Spanish invasion of Mexico. So many people were sick at the same time that the healthy could not care for the dying or bring in food, which is why the text describes whole households collapsing rather than individual deaths.

   b Smallpox came across the Atlantic with Europeans, since it had circulated in Europe, Africa, and Asia for centuries but had never reached the Americas. Native peoples had no acquired immunity to it, so instead of striking mostly children it hit adults of every age at once, and it moved quickly through a crowded city like Tenochtitlan during the siege.

   c The population collapse wrecked the labor supply the encomienda depended on, because grants of Native labor and tribute were worth little once the villages had emptied. As Native numbers fell through the sixteenth century, the Crown licensed a growing trade in enslaved Africans, so the Caribbean and the coastal sugar regions shifted from coerced Native labor toward African slavery.

Lesson 2.1 · Period 2 · CED topic 2.2

European colonization patterns compared, 1607–1754

Four empires claimed parts of North America and wanted different things from it. Spain wanted tribute, souls, and silver; France and the Netherlands wanted furs; England wanted land. What an empire wanted decided who crossed the ocean, how many came, and what happened to the Native nations already there.

That difference does most of the explaining: trade needs partners, farms need acreage.

Lesson 2.2 · Period 2 · CED topic 2.3

The regions of the British colonies

There was never one British America. Four regions grew out of four founding purposes and four climates, and by 1750 a Boston merchant and a South Carolina rice planter shared little but a king and a language. Start with why each region was settled and what could be grown there; family structure, labor system, and politics follow.

Lesson 2.3 · Period 2 · CED topics 2.4–2.5

Transatlantic trade and the growth of slavery

Britain did not govern its colonies for their benefit. Mercantilists assumed a fixed stock of wealth in the world, so colonies existed to supply raw materials, buy English manufactures, and carry both in English ships.

The same Atlantic system moved people: roughly 12.5 million Africans were forced onto slave ships over three centuries, and their labor built the colonial economy from the Chesapeake south.

Lesson 2.4 · Period 2 · CED topics 2.6–2.7

Colonial society and culture: Anglicization, Enlightenment, and revival

By 1750 colonists were in one sense more British than their grandparents: they bought British cloth and tea, argued cases under English common law, read British books, and claimed English liberties. Historians call this Anglicization.

Two currents cut across it. The Enlightenment taught that reason could improve government; the Great Awakening taught that personal conversion outranked a settled minister's authority. Both invited colonists to judge authority for themselves.

Unit 2 review · 10 multiple-choice · 2 short-answer

Period 2 review: 1607–1754

Ten multiple-choice questions and two short-answer questions on the four colonization patterns, the regions of British America, the Atlantic trade and the hardening of slavery, and the ideas (Anglicization, the Enlightenment, and the Great Awakening) that reshaped colonial culture.

Multiple choice

1. Description of: a table of historians' approximate estimates of the European population of three North American colonial ventures.

   Colonial venture	Approximate European population
   British mainland colonies, c. 1700	about 250,000
   New France, c. 1700	about 15,000
   New Netherland at the English conquest, 1664	about 9,000

   Which of the following best explains the difference shown in the table?

   The French and Dutch ventures were founded several generations after the first British colonies British colonization drew whole families seeking land and religious freedom, while French and Dutch ventures were built around trade that required few settlers Epidemic disease killed European settlers in New France and New Netherland at far higher rates than in the British colonies The French and Dutch governments prohibited emigration to North America

   The founding dates are nearly identical (Jamestown 1607, Quebec 1608, New Netherland 1624), so chronology cannot explain a gap this large. When a table compares outcomes, look for a difference in purpose rather than a difference in start date.

   Correct. A fur empire needs posts, rivers, and Native partners, not population, while a settler empire built on farming needs acreage and hands; English families migrated together, married young, and grew rapidly by natural increase, which is why the numbers diverge.

   Mortality was in fact heaviest in the early Chesapeake, and New France's settlers were comparatively healthy. This reverses the demographic record and mistakes a difference in migration for a difference in death rates.

   Neither government banned emigration. France did discourage Huguenot migration to New France, which narrowed the pool, but the deeper reason is that a fur trade run through alliances simply did not need many colonists.

2. Which of the following best describes French relations with Native peoples in North America in the period 1607–1754?

   The French avoided contact with Native nations in order to keep their settlements secure The French established missions that used Native labor under a system of encomienda grants The French built trading and military alliances with Native nations because the fur trade depended on Native trappers and guides The French displaced Native nations from coastal farmland as quickly as the English did

   The opposite is true: Champlain joined Montagnais, Algonquin, and Huron war parties in 1609 precisely to secure access to fur country. Contact was the business model, not a risk to be avoided.

   The encomienda was a Spanish institution, and although French Jesuits did run missions, they did not receive grants of Native labor and tribute. Matching each empire to its own labor institution is worth a few minutes of review.

   Correct. Furs had to be trapped, processed, and carried by people who knew the country, so New France traded, intermarried, and fought alongside its partners, and inherited their enemies, which is why the Haudenosaunee became enemies of New France.

   French settlement stayed small and clustered along the St. Lawrence and the river routes; it was English settler farming that produced early wars over land, such as the Pequot War of 1637 and Metacom's War in 1675–76.

3. Source: The Mayflower Compact, Cape Cod, November 1620 (spelling modernized).

   We whose names are underwritten… do by these presents solemnly and mutually, in the presence of God and one another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil body politic; and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute, and frame such just and equal laws… as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general good of the colony.

   The excerpt is best understood as evidence of which of the following developments in the British colonies?

   A royal charter granting the settlers the right to govern themselves An early declaration of independence from English authority A guarantee of religious toleration for all Christian settlers The practice of creating government by written agreement among the governed

   No crown issued this. The Mayflower passengers landed outside the territory of their patent and wrote the compact themselves precisely because no charter covered where they were standing.

   The full document opens by naming King James and calling the signers his loyal subjects. Reading 1776 back into 1620 is the classic anachronism this item is testing.

   The compact says nothing about toleration, and the Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies were notably intolerant of dissent: Roger Williams was banished in 1635. Colonial toleration comes from Rhode Island, Maryland's 1649 act, and Pennsylvania.

   Correct. A group of settlers, with no legal authority over the place they had reached, agreed in writing to form a body politic and obey the laws it made: the covenant habit that also produced town meetings and congregational self-government.

4. Which of the following was a significant effect of Bacon's Rebellion (1676) in Virginia?

   Planters accelerated their shift from English indentured servants to enslaved Africans The House of Burgesses was permanently abolished by royal order Virginia abandoned tobacco in favor of mixed grain farming Parliament repealed the Navigation Acts in order to calm colonial anger

   Correct. Armed former servants burning Jamestown showed the planter elite how dangerous a large class of landless armed Englishmen could be; enslaved Africans, held for life and marked by law, looked to them like a safer labor force, and Virginia's codes hardened through 1705.

   The Burgesses met continuously from 1619 into the Revolution. Rebellions in the colonies produced changes in labor and land policy far more often than the abolition of an assembly.

   Tobacco remained the Chesapeake's staple for another century, which is exactly why the labor question mattered so much. A rebellion over land and Native policy did not change what the soil grew profitably.

   The Navigation Acts were expanded rather than repealed, with a further act in 1696 creating vice-admiralty courts to enforce them. Enforcement loosened informally under salutary neglect, not by repeal.

5. Which of the following best describes the Middle colonies in the period 1607–1754?

   Compact Puritan towns organized around covenanted congregations and required schools A grain-exporting region marked by unusual religious and ethnic diversity A staple economy of rice and indigo worked by an enslaved majority Scattered tobacco plantations worked mainly by English indentured servants

   That is New England, where Massachusetts Bay granted land to towns, admitted church members by examination, and required schools after the 1647 law. The Middle colonies had no single established church to organize towns around.

   Correct. Pennsylvania's promise of religious liberty after 1681 and New York's inherited Dutch pluralism drew Quakers, Germans, Scots-Irish, and others, and the region's wheat made it the breadbasket of the mainland colonies.

   That is the Lower South, settled in part from Barbados after 1670, where rice and indigo built a slave society and South Carolina had a Black majority by about 1708.

   That is the Chesapeake, where tobacco after 1612 and the headright system produced dispersed plantations worked first by indentured servants and then by enslaved people.

6. Description of: the printed plan of the slave ship Brookes, produced in Britain in 1788 by opponents of the slave trade.

   The broadside shows a ship in cross-section and from above. Rows of human figures, drawn to scale and identical to one another, are laid side by side in the hold with no space between them, on two decks and on shelves built between the decks. Printed figures beside the drawing state how many people the vessel was legally permitted to carry.

   A historian would most likely use this image to support which of the following claims about the Atlantic slave trade?

   Enslaved people aboard slave ships rarely attempted to resist their captivity Captives were carried in conditions designed to maximize the number transported, and mortality on the Middle Passage was high Most Africans carried across the Atlantic disembarked in the British mainland colonies British merchants withdrew from the slave trade early in the eighteenth century because voyages were unprofitable

   The image says nothing about resistance, and the record contradicts the claim: shipboard insurrections, refusals of food, and escape attempts were common enough that crews armed against them. Never let a source's silence become evidence for a claim it does not make.

   Correct. The plan was drawn to show the packing that shipowners treated as ordinary practice, and it supports what the voyage records confirm: one to three months in the hold and roughly one captive in seven dying at sea.

   Of roughly 12.5 million Africans forced onto slave ships, fewer than 400,000 landed directly in the mainland colonies; the great majority went to Brazil and the Caribbean. The mainland's enslaved population grew mostly by natural increase.

   British involvement expanded after the Royal African Company's monopoly ended in 1698, and Britain became the largest single carrier in the eighteenth century. Profitability, not withdrawal, is what abolitionists were arguing against in 1788.

7. The Navigation Acts of 1651–1696 were designed primarily to do which of the following?

   Raise revenue in the colonies to pay down Britain's war debt Channel colonial trade through England and English or colonial ships so that the empire captured the profits Give colonial assemblies authority over imperial commercial policy Prohibit the importation of enslaved Africans into the British colonies

   Taxing the colonies for revenue began only after 1763, with the Sugar Act and the Stamp Act, and colonists themselves drew that line. Treating seventeenth-century trade regulation as a revenue tax collapses the distinction Period 3 is built on.

   Correct. Mercantilists assumed a fixed stock of world wealth, so the acts required colonial goods to move in English or colonial vessels and enumerated goods such as tobacco and sugar to pass through England: a benefit to English merchants and to colonial shipbuilders.

   The acts did the reverse, reserving commercial policy to Parliament; what assemblies gained came from loose enforcement rather than from the statutes. Salutary neglect was a practice, not a grant of authority.

   Britain did not restrict the slave trade in this period; it enlarged it, and Parliament abolished the trade only in 1807. Do not project later reform onto mercantilist legislation.

8. Which of the following best explains why the enslaved people who rose at Stono in 1739 marched south?

   Spanish Florida offered freedom to people who escaped from the British colonies and accepted Catholicism South Carolina's Negro Act had just restricted their movement and assembly Georgia had been founded as a refuge for people escaping slavery Parliament had recently voted to end the Atlantic slave trade

   Correct. Spanish officials at St. Augustine had publicized offers of freedom to escapees from the British colonies, which is why a march toward Florida made strategic sense and why the colony's response was so severe.

   The Negro Act of 1740 was the answer to Stono, not its cause: it restricted movement, assembly, and literacy after the rising. Reversing cause and effect is the single most common error on causation questions.

   Georgia was chartered in 1732 as a debtors' and buffer colony and initially banned slavery, but it was a British colony that returned escapees, not a refuge. The refuge was Spanish.

   Parliament abolished the British slave trade in 1807, almost seventy years later, and the trade into Charleston was expanding in the 1730s. Check the date before accepting a plausible-sounding cause.

9. Description of: a mid-eighteenth-century English engraving of the itinerant preacher George Whitefield.

   Whitefield stands on a raised wooden platform in the open air, one arm lifted. Several hundred men and women press close on every side, some kneeling, some with hands raised, some supporting listeners who have collapsed. Trees and rooftops frame the crowd. No church building appears in the scene and no other clergyman stands with him.

   The scene depicted would be most useful as evidence for which of the following?

   The growing authority of settled ministers over their own congregations A style of revival preaching that appealed directly to individual listeners and bypassed parish clergy The spread of Enlightenment rationalism among colonial elites A decline in religious participation in the British colonies before 1754

   The image shows the reverse: a visiting preacher outdoors, with no local minister beside him and no meetinghouse in sight. The Awakening split congregations into New Lights and Old Lights and weakened deference to settled clergy.

   Correct. Whitefield's tours from 1739 crossed parish lines to reach anyone who would gather, and the crowd's visible response is the point: listeners judged preaching by whether it produced conversion, not by the preacher's standing in their town.

   The Enlightenment reached colonists through print, societies, and experiment (Locke's political writing, Franklin's Library Company of 1731) not through mass open-air emotion. Both currents challenged authority, but by opposite routes.

   Crowds this size are evidence of intense participation, not decline; the Awakening produced new congregations and new colleges such as Princeton in 1746. Read what the image actually shows before choosing a trend.

10. The outcome of the 1735 trial of printer John Peter Zenger is best understood as which of the following?

    A statute enacted by Parliament guaranteeing freedom of the press in the colonies Evidence that royal governors had gained control over colonial newspapers An early step toward the principle that truthful criticism of officials is not criminal libel A ruling of the Privy Council in London binding on every colony

    No statute followed. A New York jury simply refused to convict, and press freedom was written into law only with the First Amendment in 1791, and even then contested, as the Sedition Act of 1798 showed.

    The verdict embarrassed the governor Zenger's paper had attacked and encouraged other printers. Colonial presses multiplied after 1735 rather than falling under executive control.

    Correct. Zenger's lawyer conceded the printing but argued the criticism was true, and the jury acquitted: establishing in practice, if not yet in law, that truth was a defense and that juries could check prosecutions for seditious libel.

    The case was tried and decided by a local jury in New York, and the Privy Council had no part in it. Its influence spread by example and reputation, not by binding precedent.

Short answer

1. Answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE difference between the economy of the New England colonies and the economy of the Southern colonies in the period 1607–1754.
   2. Briefly explain ONE cause of the difference you described in (a).
   3. Briefly explain ONE effect of that difference on labor systems in British North America in the same period.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: New England's mixed economy of small family farms, fishing, shipbuilding, and trade versus the Southern colonies' staple export agriculture in tobacco, rice, and indigo; or subsistence-plus-commerce versus single-crop plantation production. Do not accept: "the North was industrial and the South was agricultural," which describes the nineteenth century; or a description of only one region.
   • (b) Accept: climate and soil; rocky ground and short growing seasons in New England versus long seasons, warm climate, and tidewater river access in the Chesapeake and Lower South; or founding purpose, since Puritan families migrated for religious community while Chesapeake and Carolina ventures were organized for export profit. The response must explain how the cause produced the difference. Do not accept: restating (a); or "the South had slaves," which is an effect rather than a cause.
   • (c) Accept: staple agriculture created heavy year-round labor demand, met first by indentured servants and then, after roughly 1660–1710, by hereditary racial slavery written into law (Virginia 1662 and 1705); New England's diversified farms relied mainly on family labor, so the enslaved share of its population stayed small while its merchants still profited from carrying slave-grown goods. Do not accept: naming slavery without tying it to the economic difference; or claiming New England had no connection to slavery.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a New England had a mixed economy of small family farms, fishing, shipbuilding, and trade, and no single export crop. The Southern colonies built their economies around staples grown for export: tobacco in the Chesapeake, rice and indigo in South Carolina.

   b Climate and soil are the main reason. New England's growing season is short and its soil thin and rocky, so a farm could feed a family and produce a small surplus but not a plantation crop. The Chesapeake and Lower South had long warm seasons and rivers that let planters ship heavy crops straight from their own landings, which made large-scale staple farming worth the investment.

   c Staple crops needed constant labor in large gangs, so Chesapeake planters first imported English indentured servants under the headright system and then, as English servants became scarcer and riskier after Bacon's Rebellion, turned to enslaved Africans; Virginia made slave status hereditary in 1662 and consolidated its slave code in 1705. New England's farms could be worked by a family, so slavery stayed a much smaller part of its labor force even though its merchants carried and profited from slave-grown sugar and molasses.

2. Source: Maryland Assembly, "An Act Concerning Religion," 1649 (spelling modernized).

   No person or persons whatsoever within this province professing to believe in Jesus Christ shall from henceforth be any ways troubled, molested, or discountenanced for or in respect of his or her religion, nor in the free exercise thereof… nor any way compelled to the belief or exercise of any other religion against his or her consent.

   Using the excerpt, answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE historical situation that led to the passage of the act excerpted.
   2. Briefly explain ONE way the act reflects a broader pattern in the development of the British colonies in the period 1607–1754.
   3. Briefly explain ONE limitation on religious toleration in the British colonies in the same period.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: Maryland was founded in 1632 as a proprietary colony under the Calverts, a Catholic family, as a refuge for English Catholics, but Protestant settlers quickly outnumbered them, so the proprietor needed legal protection for a Catholic minority; or the religious and political conflict of the English Civil War of the 1640s, which threatened Catholic proprietors. Do not accept: a general statement that "people wanted religious freedom" with no Maryland-specific situation.
   • (b) Accept: growing religious pluralism made accommodation practical, as in Rhode Island after 1636 and Pennsylvania after 1681; or proprietors used toleration to recruit settlers to colonies that needed population; or colonial assemblies legislated on matters England had not settled. The response must connect the act to a pattern beyond Maryland. Do not accept: restating the content of the excerpt.
   • (c) Accept: the act itself protected only those "professing to believe in Jesus Christ" and prescribed severe penalties, including death, for denying the Trinity, so Jews and non-Christians were excluded; Protestants repealed the act in 1654 once they controlled the colony; Massachusetts banished dissenters such as Roger Williams in 1635 and Anne Hutchinson in 1638 and executed Quakers between 1659 and 1661; Virginia maintained an established Anglican church supported by taxes. Do not accept: a vague claim that toleration "was not complete" with no example.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a Maryland was founded in 1632 by the Calverts, a Catholic proprietary family, as a place where English Catholics could worship safely, but Protestant settlers came in such numbers that Catholics ended up a minority in their own colony. With the English Civil War making Protestant power in England stronger, the assembly passed the act to protect Catholics from exactly the treatment the excerpt forbids.

   b It fits a broader colonial pattern: where a colony had to attract settlers and already contained several churches, toleration became the practical policy. Rhode Island separated church and colony after 1636, and Pennsylvania's promise of religious liberty after 1681 drew Quakers, Germans, and Scots-Irish. Proprietors learned that religious guarantees filled empty land faster than uniformity did.

   c Toleration in this period was narrow. This act covered only people "professing to believe in Jesus Christ," and it set harsh penalties, including death, for denying the Trinity, so it offered nothing to Jews or non-Christians, and Protestants repealed it in 1654 once they controlled Maryland. Massachusetts went further the other way, banishing Roger Williams in 1635 and Anne Hutchinson in 1638 for challenging its orthodoxy.

Lesson 3.1 · Period 3 · CED topic 3.2

The Seven Years' War and its consequences, 1754–1763

Period 3 opens with a war Britain won so completely that victory broke the empire. In 1754 Virginia sent a twenty-two-year-old militia colonel, George Washington, to press a land claim at the forks of the Ohio. He skirmished with a French party, surrendered a stockade called Fort Necessity on July 3, and turned a frontier fight into a global war.

Lesson 3.2 · Period 3 · CED topic 3.3

Taxation without representation, 1764–1774

Parliament had regulated colonial trade for a century. What it had not done was tax the colonies to raise money. Between 1764 and 1774 it tried repeatedly, and each attempt drew a sharper answer: petitions, boycotts, a congress, an army. Ministers said colonists were virtually represented, since every member spoke for the whole empire; colonists, used to assemblies they elected, called that a fiction.

Lesson 3.3 · Period 3 · CED topic 3.4

Philosophical foundations of the American Revolution

Rebellion needs a justification, not just a grievance. Colonists found one in ideas already circulating in British politics: that government exists by consent to protect natural rights, that liberty survives only where power is divided, and that free states rest on civic virtue and die of corruption. For a decade those ideas argued for colonial rights inside the empire; in 1776 Thomas Paine turned them against it.

Lesson 3.4 · Period 3 · CED topics 3.5–3.6

The American Revolution and the influence of revolutionary ideals

Britain had the world's best navy and a professional army. The Continentals had short enlistments, little money, and a commander who lost more battles than he won. Washington's answer was to keep the army in existence rather than risk it: Britain had to win the war, while America only had to not lose it. That made the war long, and a long war put the question to Europe.

Lesson 3.5 · Period 3 · CED topic 3.7

The Articles of Confederation, 1781–1789

Americans had just fought a distant government that claimed the power to tax them, so their first national charter withheld it. The Articles, drafted in 1777 and ratified in March 1781, created a single-chamber Congress in which each state cast one vote, with no executive, no national courts, and no revenue except what the states chose to send. The design was deliberate. Its failures were predictable, and its successes are the part students forget.

Lesson 3.6 · Period 3 · CED topics 3.8–3.9

The Constitutional Convention, the Constitution, and ratification

Fifty-five delegates met in Philadelphia from May to September 1787 with instructions to revise the Articles. They wrote a different government instead, behind closed windows, and then had to sell it to the states. Two questions consumed the summer: how states of wildly different size would be represented, and how states that held hundreds of thousands of people as property would count them.

Lesson 3.7 · Period 3 · CED topics 3.10–3.12

Shaping a new republic, 1789–1800

The Constitution did not say how a president should behave, so Washington's choices became precedent: a cabinet, a careful distance from Congress, retirement after two terms. It also did not anticipate political parties, and they formed anyway, in the first Congress, over Alexander Hamilton's plan to give the new government European-grade credit.

Unit 3 review · 10 multiple-choice · 2 short-answer

Period 3 review: 1754–1800

Ten multiple-choice questions and two short-answer questions running from the Seven Years' War through the imperial crisis, the Revolution and its ideals, the Articles, the Constitution and ratification, and the first party system under Washington and Adams.

Multiple choice

1. Description of: a woodcut published by Benjamin Franklin in the Pennsylvania Gazette, May 9, 1754.

   A snake lies along a curve, severed into eight labeled segments. Reading from tail to head the labels are S.C., N.C., V., M., P., N.J., N.Y., and N.E.: the southern and middle colonies separately, with the New England colonies combined in the head. Beneath the snake are the words "JOIN, or DIE."

   The woodcut was first published in order to encourage which of the following?

   Colonial resistance to parliamentary taxation Colonial cooperation in defending the frontier against France and its Native allies Colonial protest against the Proclamation of 1763 A colonial declaration of independence from Britain

   Printers did revive this image during the Stamp Act crisis and again in the 1770s, which is why it feels like a resistance symbol, but in May 1754 Parliament had levied no revenue tax on the colonies at all.

   Correct. It appeared with news that the French had seized the forks of the Ohio and driven off a Virginia work party, six weeks before the Albany Congress, where Franklin proposed a union with a council empowered to tax for defense. The assemblies rejected that plan, which is the irony worth remembering.

   The Proclamation came nine years later, after Britain had won the war and Pontiac's forces had attacked British posts. Date the stimulus before choosing an answer about its purpose.

   In 1754 Franklin was arguing for colonial union within the British Empire so that it could be defended more effectively. Reading 1776 into a 1754 cartoon is the anachronism this item is built to catch.

2. Which of the following best explains the British government's purpose in issuing the Proclamation of 1763?

   To open the Ohio Valley to rapid settlement now that France had withdrawn To avoid the cost of further frontier warfare by reserving western land for Native nations and licensing the trade To reward colonial militiamen with land grants beyond the Appalachians To punish the colonies that had rejected the Albany Plan of Union in 1754

   The Proclamation did the opposite, forbidding purchases and settlements west of the Appalachian divide without royal licence. Colonists who had fought expecting western land read it as a betrayal, which is the reaction the exam usually asks you to explain.

   Correct. It was issued months into Pontiac's War, when Britain had neither the troops nor the money to police a newly won interior; keeping settlers out was the cheapest way to prevent wars the army would then have to finish.

   Veterans received no such grants, and the line applied to everyone. Turning a restriction into a reward reverses the policy's whole logic.

   Britain was not settling scores from 1754. The Proclamation answered a military and fiscal crisis in 1763, and the Albany Plan had been rejected by the colonial assemblies rather than by London.

3. Source: Parliament of Great Britain, the Declaratory Act, March 1766.

   The said colonies and plantations in America have been, are, and of right ought to be, subordinate unto, and dependent upon the imperial crown and parliament of Great Britain… [Parliament] had, hath, and of right ought to have, full power and authority to make laws… to bind the colonies and people of America… in all cases whatsoever.

   The passage was most directly a response to which of the following?

   Colonial boycotts and the Stamp Act Congress, which had forced Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act The destruction of company tea in Boston Harbor The Continental Association adopted by the First Continental Congress Colonial anger at the restriction on settlement west of the Appalachians

   Correct. Parliament repealed the Stamp Act in the same month it passed this act, and the Declaratory Act was the price of that retreat: Britain surrendered the revenue while asserting an unlimited power to legislate, which guaranteed the dispute would return.

   The Boston Tea Party came in December 1773, seven years later, and Parliament answered it with the Coercive Acts rather than with a declaration of principle. Watch the dates on any "most directly" question.

   The Continental Association was adopted in October 1774. It was in part a consequence of the constitutional claim made here, not its cause.

   The Proclamation line concerned western settlement, not the authority to legislate or tax, and this act says nothing about land. A real grievance that does not match the document's subject is still the wrong answer.

4. Which of the following best describes the British doctrine of "virtual representation"?

   Colonists elected agents who held seats in the House of Commons Every member of Parliament represented the interests of the whole empire, so colonists were represented even though they elected no one Colonial assemblies held legal standing equal to that of Parliament Parliament could tax only those colonies that had sent delegates to an intercolonial congress

   Colonies employed agents in London, Franklin among them, but those agents lobbied ministers and presented petitions; none sat or voted in Parliament. That gap is exactly what colonists pointed to.

   Correct. Ministers argued that a member spoke for the whole realm and its interests rather than only for the voters of one place, so unrepresented Manchester and unrepresented Boston stood in the same position. Colonists, used to assemblies they elected, called that a fiction.

   That was the colonial claim by 1774, not the British doctrine, and the Declaratory Act of 1766 was written to deny it. Do not swap the two sides of a constitutional dispute.

   No such rule existed, and the Stamp Act Congress of 1765 had no standing in British law. This choice invents a procedure that sounds reasonable but appears in no document.

5. Source: Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776.

   We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. — That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.

   The reasoning in the excerpt drew most directly on which of the following ideas?

   Montesquieu's argument that liberty requires legislative, executive, and judicial power in separate hands Locke's argument that government is a trust created by consent to protect natural rights The republican warning that standing armies and patronage corrupt free states The mercantilist principle that colonies exist to enrich the mother country

   Montesquieu genuinely shaped the period, and American constitution-writers took his separation of powers literally between 1776 and 1787, but this passage says nothing about dividing power. A true idea that does not match the excerpt is still wrong.

   Correct. The excerpt states the premise Locke supplied: rights exist prior to government, government is instituted to secure them, and its just powers come from consent. That premise is what turns the list of the King's abuses into proof rather than complaint.

   Colonists did fear corruption and standing armies, and that language fills the grievance section of this same document. It is not, however, the reasoning of the preamble quoted here.

   Mercantilism is the imperial economic theory colonists were resisting, not a source of their argument for independence. Look for the idea a passage uses, not the one it opposes.

6. Which of the following most directly contributed to the American victory in the Revolutionary War?

   The Continental Army's repeated defeat of British regulars in open battle The destruction of the British navy early in the war The surrender of a British army at Saratoga in 1777, which brought France into an open alliance in 1778 Alliances between the United States and most Native nations along the frontier

   Washington lost more battles than he won, and his strategy was to preserve the army rather than risk it: Britain had to win the war, while the Americans only had to avoid losing it. Endurance, not battlefield dominance, is the right frame.

   The Royal Navy remained the strongest afloat throughout the war. The decisive naval moment came from the French fleet under de Grasse, which sealed the Chesapeake and trapped Cornwallis at Yorktown in 1781.

   Correct. Burgoyne's surrender in October 1777 persuaded France that the Americans could win, and the alliance of February 1778 supplied loans, troops, and, decisively, a fleet, turning a colonial rebellion into a war Britain had to fight on several oceans.

   Most Native nations that took a side, including four of the six Haudenosaunee nations, allied with Britain, judging it the likelier check on settler expansion. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 then ignored them entirely.

7. Which of the following best describes the effect of the Revolution on slavery in the period 1775–1800?

   Northern states with relatively few enslaved people abolished slavery outright or gradually, while states farther south did not Every state had abolished slavery by 1800 The Constitution ended the Atlantic slave trade immediately upon ratification Slavery expanded into the territory north of the Ohio River

   Correct. Vermont barred adult slavery in 1777, Pennsylvania passed gradual abolition in 1780, and Massachusetts courts ended it by 1783, while no state south of Pennsylvania did the same. Revolutionary ideals moved furthest where they cost the propertied least.

   Slavery remained legal throughout the South, and the northern gradual laws freed only children born after a set date, so people remained enslaved in the North well into the nineteenth century. Gradual abolition is not immediate abolition.

   The Constitution protected the trade from federal interference until 1808; Congress then banned it effective January 1 of that year, twenty years after ratification. This date is missed constantly.

   The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 prohibited slavery north of the Ohio, fixing a sectional line that shaped the crises of 1820 and 1854. This choice reverses the policy.

8. Description of: a surveyor's diagram of a township laid out under the Land Ordinance of 1785.

   The diagram shows a square six miles on a side, ruled into a grid of thirty-six sections. Each section is one square mile, 640 acres, and carries a number. Section 16, near the middle of the square, is shaded and labeled as reserved for the support of schools. Identical squares repeat on every side, covering the map without gaps.

   The system shown most directly served which of the following purposes for the Confederation government?

   Guaranteeing Native nations permanent title to land north of the Ohio River Raising revenue through the orderly survey and sale of western land, since Congress could not tax Establishing western territories that would remain permanently subordinate to the original states Funding a standing national army authorized by the Articles of Confederation

   The survey assumed the land would be sold to settlers, and Native title was extinguished by treaty and by force: Fallen Timbers in 1794 and the Treaty of Greenville in 1795. A grid drawn for sale is not a guarantee of Native possession.

   Correct. The Articles gave Congress no power to tax, so requisitions on the states went unpaid and land sales became its only dependable income. A rectangular survey made parcels easy to describe, sell, and record, and the school section made them easier to market.

   The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 promised the opposite: admission as states on equal footing once a territory reached 60,000 free inhabitants. That formula is one of the Confederation's lasting achievements.

   The Articles authorized no standing army, and Congress could not raise a force to answer Shays's Rebellion in 1786–87: Massachusetts merchants funded the militia that did. Revenue, not an army, is what the survey was for.

9. Source: James Madison, writing as Publius, The Federalist No. 51, February 1788.

   If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary… Ambition must be made to counteract ambition. The interest of the man must be connected with the constitutional rights of the place.

   The argument in the excerpt was used most directly to defend which feature of the proposed Constitution?

   The three-fifths clause counting enslaved people for representation The promise of a bill of rights listing protections for individuals The separation of powers and the checks each branch holds over the others The requirement that nine of thirteen states approve major measures

   The three-fifths clause was a bargain over representation and direct taxes between slaveholding and non-slaveholding states, and Madison defends it elsewhere on entirely different grounds. Nothing in this passage concerns apportionment.

   Federalists initially resisted a bill of rights, arguing that a government of enumerated powers needed none; the Bill of Rights was the Anti-Federalists' victory, added in 1791. This passage relies on structure, not on listed guarantees.

   Correct. Madison's claim is that paper limits fail, so the design must set each branch's self-interest against the others: the veto and override, impeachment, Senate confirmation and treaty consent all follow from "ambition must be made to counteract ambition."

   The nine-of-thirteen rule belonged to the Articles of Confederation, the document Madison was arguing to replace. Attaching an old rule to a new charter is a chronology trap worth catching.

10. The dispute over Alexander Hamilton's proposal to charter a national bank contributed most directly to which of the following?

    The adoption of the Bill of Rights in 1791 The Whiskey Rebellion of 1794 The formation of the first political parties around competing readings of federal power The passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798

    The Bill of Rights came out of the ratification bargain with Anti-Federalists, not out of the cabinet's fight over the bank. Two constitutional arguments can run at once without one causing the other.

    That rising answered the excise on whiskey, a different piece of Hamilton's program, and it was a tax revolt rather than a constitutional dispute. Precision about which measure produced which reaction is what separates a strong causation answer from a vague one.

    Correct. Jefferson found no power to charter a bank among the enumerated powers; Hamilton read it into the necessary and proper clause, and Washington signed. Broad construction and strict construction then hardened into Federalists and Democratic-Republicans.

    Those acts grew out of the crisis with France in 1797–98, the XYZ Affair and the undeclared naval war, not out of the bank. By then the parties the bank fight helped create already existed.

Short answer

1. Source: United States Congress, the Sedition Act, July 14, 1798.

   That if any person shall write, print, utter or publish… any false, scandalous and malicious writing or writings against the government of the United States, or either house of the Congress…, or the President…, with intent to defame… shall be punished by a fine not exceeding two thousand dollars, and by imprisonment not exceeding two years.

   Using the excerpt, answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE historical situation that led to the passage of the law excerpted.
   2. Briefly explain ONE way the law contributed to the development of political parties in the 1790s.
   3. Briefly explain ONE way opponents of the law responded to it.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: the crisis with France, the XYZ Affair of 1797–98 and the undeclared naval war known as the Quasi-War; Federalist fear that French and Irish immigrants and Republican newspapers were disloyal in wartime; Federalist control of Congress and the presidency under John Adams. Do not accept: the Whiskey Rebellion; the War of 1812; or a general statement that "the government wanted control" with no specific situation.
   • (b) Accept: prosecutions fell almost entirely on Republican editors and politicians, Congressman Matthew Lyon of Vermont was convicted and then re-elected from jail, which convinced Jefferson's followers that Federalists meant to criminalize opposition and pushed them to build a permanent organization; or Federalist use of federal law as a partisan weapon made party identity a matter of constitutional principle rather than personality. An explanation of how or why is required. Do not accept: "it made people angry"; or the claim that the acts created the Federalist Party, which already existed.
   • (c) Accept: the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798–99, drafted secretly by Jefferson and Madison, which argued that states could judge the constitutionality of federal law; Republican printers kept publishing and campaigned on the acts, contributing to Jefferson's victory in 1800; after 1800 Jefferson pardoned those convicted, Congress let the acts expire, and fines were later repaid. Do not accept: the claim that the Supreme Court struck the law down; it never ruled on it, and judicial review was asserted only in 1803.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a The act came out of the crisis with France. After French agents demanded bribes from American envoys in the XYZ Affair, the United States fought an undeclared naval war with France, and Federalists in Congress argued that immigrants sympathetic to France and newspapers sympathetic to Jefferson were dangerous in wartime.

   b The law turned a policy disagreement into a fight over whether opposition itself was legal. Federal prosecutors used it almost entirely against Republican printers and politicians, Matthew Lyon of Vermont was convicted and then re-elected from a jail cell, so Jefferson's supporters concluded they needed a permanent organization to win the government back, not just a faction in Congress.

   c Jefferson and Madison wrote the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions in 1798 and 1799, which argued that the states could judge federal laws and treat unconstitutional ones as void. No other state joined them, but the resolutions gave Republicans a platform for the election of 1800, and once Jefferson won he pardoned those convicted and let the acts lapse.

2. Answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE weakness of the national government under the Articles of Confederation.
   2. Briefly explain ONE way the Constitution drafted in 1787 addressed the weakness you described in (a).
   3. Briefly explain ONE argument made by opponents of ratification of the Constitution in 1787–1788.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: no power to tax, so Congress depended on requisitions the states often ignored; no power to regulate interstate or foreign commerce; no executive and no national courts; one vote per state, nine of thirteen to pass major measures, and unanimity to amend; no means to suppress an armed rising such as Shays's Rebellion in 1786–87. Do not accept: a supposed weakness that is not in the Articles, or a bare "the government was weak."
   • (b) Accept: a remedy that actually matches the weakness named in (a); Article I gives Congress power to lay and collect taxes and to regulate commerce among the states; Article II creates a single executive who can call out the militia; Article III creates federal courts; the House is apportioned by population and laws pass by majority; amendment requires two-thirds of Congress and three-fourths of the states rather than unanimity. The response must connect the remedy to the stated weakness. Do not accept: a correct feature of the Constitution that does not address (a).
   • (c) Accept: the Constitution contained no bill of rights; a republic spread over so large a territory could not remain responsive to local majorities; the taxing power and the supremacy clause would swallow the states; the presidency and Senate resembled monarchy and aristocracy; federal courts would override state courts; the three-fifths and slave-trade clauses, which some Anti-Federalists attacked as concessions to slaveholding states. Do not accept: arguments actually made by Federalists; or a general complaint that the document was dangerous with no specific objection named.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a The biggest weakness was that Congress had no power to tax. It could only requisition money from the states, and the states routinely paid late or not at all, so the national government could not service the war debt or reliably pay the army.

   b Article I of the Constitution gave Congress the power to lay and collect taxes, duties, and excises directly, without going through the states. That is exactly why Hamilton could fund the war debt at face value and assume the states' debts in 1790 and 1791: the new government had revenue of its own, and the whiskey excise and the militia call-up of 1794 showed it would collect even when people resisted.

   c Anti-Federalists argued that the document listed no protections for individuals, so a distant government armed with the taxing power and the supremacy clause could do as it liked. They also insisted, following Montesquieu, that a republic spread over so much territory could not stay responsive to the people. That demand was answered in 1791 with the Bill of Rights.

Lesson 4.1 · Period 4 · CED topic 4.2

The rise of political parties and the era of Jefferson, 1800–1824

The campaign of 1800 was vicious, and then the machinery jammed: Jefferson and his running mate Aaron Burr tied at 73 electoral votes, and the House needed thirty-six ballots to choose Jefferson in February 1801. Adams skipped the inauguration, but he left. Power passed to the opposition without troops in the streets.

Jefferson called it a revolution. In office he governed by principle and improvisation together, while the Federalist judiciary he inherited only grew stronger.

Lesson 4.2 · Period 4 · CED topics 4.3–4.4

Regional interests and the world stage, 1812–1823

Britain seized American sailors, choked neutral trade with the Orders in Council, and was blamed for Native resistance on the frontier. Madison asked for war in June 1812. It went badly (Canada held, Washington burned in 1814), yet the Treaty of Ghent restored the prewar borders, and Jackson's victory at New Orleans, won weeks after the treaty was signed, let Americans remember a draw as a triumph.

The decade after looked unified, until a depression and a fight over Missouri showed the seams.

Lesson 4.3 · Period 4 · CED topics 4.5–4.6

The Market Revolution: industrialization and society

Between 1815 and 1848 the cost of moving things collapsed. The Erie Canal, finished in 1825, cut freight charges between Buffalo and New York City by roughly ninety percent; steamboats made upstream traffic cheap; railroads spread through the 1830s. A farm family that had raised food for itself could now sell wheat a thousand miles away and buy factory cloth with the proceeds. That is the Market Revolution: not one invention, but the moment most Americans began producing for a market instead of a household.

Lesson 4.4 · Period 4 · CED topics 4.7–4.8

Expanding democracy and the Age of Jackson, 1824–1840

In 1824 four candidates split the vote. Andrew Jackson led in popular and electoral votes without a majority, the House chose John Quincy Adams, and Adams made Henry Clay his secretary of state. Jackson's men called it a corrupt bargain and campaigned for four straight years. In 1828 they won, and brought a new politics with them: mass rallies, party newspapers, and a president who claimed to speak for the people against Congress and the courts.

Lesson 4.5 · Period 4 · CED topics 4.9–4.10

An American culture and the Second Great Awakening

A wave of revivals rolled across the country from the 1790s into the 1840s. Camp meetings drew thousands, Methodists and Baptists grew fastest, and Charles Grandison Finney held revivals so often in western New York that the region was called the burned-over district. His message fit the age: salvation was not decided in advance but open to anyone who chose it, and the saved owed the world reform. Writers and painters were chasing the same independence in another key, looking for a culture that owed nothing to Europe.

Lesson 4.6 · Period 4 · CED topic 4.11

Reform movements: abolition, temperance, and women's rights

Reformers disagreed less about whether slavery was wrong than about how fast to end it. The American Colonization Society, founded in 1816, proposed gradual emancipation and resettlement in Liberia; most free Black northerners rejected it as exile. On January 1, 1831, William Lloyd Garrison launched The Liberator and demanded immediate emancipation without compensation. Abolitionists stayed a small and often mobbed minority, but they set the terms of the argument for thirty years.

Lesson 4.7 · Period 4 · CED topics 4.12–4.13

African Americans and Southern society, 1808–1848

Congress banned the Atlantic slave trade effective January 1, 1808, and slavery grew anyway. The cotton gin and fresh land in Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana made enslaved labor more valuable than ever, so a domestic trade carried roughly a million people from the Upper South to the cotton states, most sold away from parents, spouses, or children. Enslaved people built families, churches, and networks in spite of it.

Unit 4 review · 10 multiple-choice · 2 short-answer

Period 4 review: 1800–1848

Ten exam-style multiple-choice items and two short-answer questions covering Jeffersonian and Jacksonian politics, the Market Revolution, the Second Great Awakening and antebellum reform, and the growth of Southern slave society: answer each before opening the explanation, because the rationales are written to teach the miss.

Multiple choice

1. Source: Thomas Jefferson, First Inaugural Address, March 4, 1801.

   Let us, then, fellow-citizens, unite with one heart and one mind. … every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle. We have called by different names brethren of the same principle. We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists.

   Which of the following best describes Jefferson's purpose in the passage?

   To announce that he would govern through a coalition cabinet of Federalists and Republicans To present the transfer of power from one party to another as an ordinary event among citizens who share basic principles To declare that the election had permanently ended party division in the United States To warn that Federalist judges would be removed from the federal courts

   Jefferson made no such offer, and in office he did the opposite: he let the Alien and Sedition Acts expire, repealed the internal taxes, and replaced Federalist officeholders. Reading conciliatory language as a power-sharing plan mistakes tone for policy.

   Correct. The House had needed thirty-six ballots to break the Burr tie, and Jefferson's audience included the party he had just displaced. Saying that different names cover "brethren of the same principle" makes a partisan turnover look routine rather than revolutionary, which is exactly the problem a first peaceful transfer of power has to solve.

   The passage says the reverse: he grants that differences of opinion exist and argues only that they are not differences of principle. Party conflict in fact sharpened, over the judiciary, the Embargo of 1807, and the War of 1812.

   Nothing in the excerpt concerns the courts. This choice borrows from a real 1801–1804 fight, the repeal of the Judiciary Act and the failed impeachment of Justice Chase, but the Marshall Court only grew stronger, from Marbury (1803) to Gibbons (1824).

2. The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 most directly contributed to which of the following developments?

   The establishment of judicial review by the Supreme Court The merger of the Federalist and Democratic-Republican parties into a single national party Repeated congressional crises over whether slavery would be allowed in federal territory The abolition of slavery in the territory west of the Mississippi River

   Judicial review came from Marbury v. Madison, decided the same year but arising from a dispute over undelivered judicial commissions. Two things happening in 1803 is coincidence, not causation: the exam rewards you for telling them apart.

   Federalists opposed the purchase precisely because new western states would dilute New England's weight. The party's collapse came later and for a different reason: the Hartford Convention of 1814 made it look disloyal just as the war ended.

   Correct. Doubling the national territory forced Congress to decide the status of slavery in each new piece of it. Missouri's application produced the crisis of 1819–1820, settled by admitting Missouri as a slave state, Maine as free, and barring slavery north of 36°30′ in the rest of the Purchase: a line the Kansas-Nebraska Act repealed in 1854.

   The Missouri Compromise restricted slavery only north of 36°30′, and Missouri itself entered as a slave state. Slavery expanded into Louisiana, Arkansas, and Missouri, and the cotton boom carried it steadily westward.

3. Source: James Monroe, Seventh Annual Message to Congress, December 2, 1823.

   The American continents … are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers. … we should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety.

   A historian would most likely use the excerpt to support which of the following claims about United States foreign policy in the 1820s?

   The United States entered a formal alliance with Great Britain to defend the new Latin American republics The United States claimed a sphere of influence in the Western Hemisphere that exceeded its ability to enforce it The United States abandoned its long-standing policy of avoiding permanent involvement in European quarrels The United States intended to annex the former Spanish colonies in South America

   Britain proposed a joint declaration and John Quincy Adams refused it, insisting the United States speak alone rather than "come in as a cockboat in the wake of the British man-of-war." The unilateral form is the point of the document.

   Correct. The message warns all of Europe away from an entire hemisphere at a moment when the United States had a small navy and no means of stopping a Spanish or French expedition. What actually deterred intervention was the Royal Navy and Britain's own interest in open trade, so the excerpt is evidence of ambition and self-definition rather than of power.

   The message restates that policy rather than abandoning it: Monroe pairs the warning with a pledge not to interfere in Europe's existing colonies or internal affairs. It draws a line between two spheres, which is the Washington–Jefferson tradition, not a break from it.

   No annexation is proposed. The United States had already recognized the new republics in 1822, and the argument here is that Europe must stay out: a claim about who may intervene, not a claim to the territory itself.

4. Which of the following most directly contributed to the passage of the protective Tariff of 1816?

   Southern planters' demand for higher prices on exported cotton Wartime interruption of British imports, which built American factories that could not survive the postwar flood of cheap British goods The Panic of 1819, which convinced Congress that domestic industry needed protection The Hartford Convention's demand for amendments limiting Southern influence in Congress

   A protective tariff worked against planters: it raised the price of the manufactured goods they bought while doing nothing for cotton, which sold abroad. That grievance grew until South Carolina tried to nullify the Tariff of 1828.

   Correct. Embargo and war cut off British cloth and iron for nearly a decade, and Americans built mills to fill the gap. When peace came in 1815 British manufacturers dumped goods below cost to recapture the market, and Congress answered with the first tariff passed mainly to protect industry rather than to raise revenue: the opening plank of Clay's American System.

   The chronology is reversed. The Panic of 1819 came three years after the tariff, and its main political legacies were western hostility to the Second Bank and pressure for easier land terms.

   The Hartford Convention was a New England protest against the war itself, meeting in December 1814. Its demands concerned the three-fifths clause, embargoes, and war declarations, and peace arrived before Congress considered them.

5. Description of: a table comparing the cost and the time required to move one ton of freight between Buffalo and New York City before and after the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825.

   The table gives two rows. Before the canal, overland wagon haulage cost roughly one hundred dollars a ton and took about three weeks. After the canal opened, the same ton moved by canal boat for roughly ten dollars and arrived in about one week. A note under the table records that tonnage carried on the canal rose in every year of the 1830s.

   Which of the following best explains the change shown in the table?

   The completion of a transcontinental railroad joined eastern and western markets The factory system at Lowell lowered the price of finished cloth State investment in canals collapsed transportation costs and drew inland farmers into distant markets Samuel Morse's telegraph allowed merchants to learn distant prices within minutes

   The transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, four decades later and on the other side of the continent. Reaching for the most famous transportation fact instead of the one that fits the dates is the commonest error on a data stimulus.

   Lowell's mills changed what it cost to make cloth, not what it cost to move a ton of freight. The table measures shipping cost and travel time, so an answer about manufacturing productivity cannot explain it.

   Correct. New York State borrowed to dig the canal, finished it in 1825, and cut the Buffalo-to-New York freight charge by roughly ninety percent. Once a farmer in the Genesee Valley could sell wheat in New York City and buy factory cloth with the proceeds, household production gave way to producing for a market: the Market Revolution in one table.

   Morse's Washington-to-Baltimore line opened in 1844, nineteen years after the canal, and it moved information rather than cargo. Faster price news mattered enormously to merchants, but it could not lower a wagon's haulage cost in 1825.

6. Source: Andrew Jackson, veto message on the recharter of the Bank of the United States, July 10, 1832.

   It is to be regretted that the rich and powerful too often bend the acts of government to their selfish purposes. Distinctions in society will always exist under every just government. Equality of talents, of education, or of wealth can not be produced by human institutions.

   Which of the following best describes the argument Jackson makes in the excerpt?

   Government should not grant privileges that let the already wealthy enlarge advantages they would have anyway Differences of wealth are unjust and should be leveled by legislation The Bank's charter exceeded the powers the Constitution grants to Congress Government should use federal revenue to equalize education among citizens

   Correct. Jackson concedes that inequality of talent and wealth is natural and permanent, then argues that the wrong lies in government adding to it: here, by chartering a monopoly whose stock enriched a few. That combination, egalitarian in rhetoric and limited in program, is the core of Jacksonian political language.

   The excerpt says the opposite in plain words: distinctions "will always exist," and equality of wealth "can not be produced by human institutions." Treating Jackson as a redistributionist is the classic overreading of this passage.

   Jackson does make a constitutional argument elsewhere in the veto, claiming the right to judge the Bank unconstitutional even after McCulloch v. Maryland upheld it in 1819. But it is not in these sentences, and a stimulus question asks what this text argues: outside knowledge cannot override the words on the page.

   No federal program of any kind is proposed. Jackson's answer to privilege was to withhold charters and remove deposits, not to spend; he also vetoed federal funding for internal improvements such as the Maysville Road in 1830.

7. Which of the following best describes the significance of Worcester v. Georgia (1832)?

   The Court upheld the Indian Removal Act as a valid exercise of federal authority The Court ruled that Native Americans were citizens entitled to vote in state elections The Court ordered federal troops to protect the Cherokee, and Jackson enforced the order The Court held that Georgia's laws had no force within Cherokee territory, but the ruling was not enforced and removal went forward

   The case tested Georgia's laws, not the federal statute, and the Court ruled against Georgia. Assuming that a Jackson-era Court must have sided with removal skips the actual holding, which recognized the Cherokee Nation as a distinct political community.

   Citizenship was not at issue and was not granted. Native Americans born in tribal nations were not made United States citizens by general statute until the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924.

   The opposite happened. Georgia ignored the decision, Jackson declined to enforce it, and the federal government instead pressed the Treaty of New Echota (1835), signed by a minority faction, as the legal basis for removal.

   Correct. Marshall's opinion held that the Cherokee Nation was a distinct community in which Georgia's laws could have no force, a real legal victory. Without enforcement it changed nothing on the ground: the army moved the Cherokee west in 1838, and thousands died on the Trail of Tears, a reminder that a court ruling is only as strong as the executive willing to back it.

8. Description of: a lithograph printed about 1829 showing an outdoor religious meeting in a forest clearing.

   Several hundred people sit on plank benches facing a raised wooden platform where a preacher stands with both arms extended. Rows of canvas tents line the clearing behind the crowd. Near the platform a group of worshippers has risen from the benches; some are weeping, and several are supported by neighbors standing beside them.

   The scene described most directly reflects which of the following developments?

   The congregational worship of seventeenth-century Puritan New England The Second Great Awakening, whose revivals taught that salvation was open to anyone who chose it Transcendentalist withdrawal from organized religion in search of truth in nature The Anglicization of colonial culture through the imitation of English institutions

   Puritan worship happened indoors, in a town meetinghouse, under a settled minister whose congregation admitted only "visible saints." A tented camp meeting drawing strangers from a whole district is a different institution from a different century.

   Correct. Camp meetings, itinerant preaching, and emotional conversion were the machinery of the revivals that ran from the 1790s into the 1840s, and they grew Methodist and Baptist membership fastest. Preachers such as Charles Grandison Finney replaced predestination with an individual decision, which also made the converted responsible for reforming the world: the link from revival to temperance, missions, and antislavery societies.

   Transcendentalists were a small circle of writers and lecturers who located truth in individual conscience and nature rather than in crowds; Thoreau's answer to society was Walden Pond, not a camp meeting. Both movements trusted the individual, but they looked nothing alike.

   Anglicization describes eighteenth-century colonists copying English consumer goods, law, and manners. The revival in the image is a nineteenth-century American mass form, and contemporaries treated it as evidence of how unlike England the country had become.

9. Source: Declaration of Sentiments, Woman's Rights Convention, Seneca Falls, New York, July 1848.

   We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men and women are created equal … He has compelled her to submit to laws, in the formation of which she had no voice. … He has taken from her all right in property, even to the wages she earns.

   A historian would most likely use the excerpt to support which of the following claims?

   Most American women in 1848 supported extending the vote to women The convention rejected the Declaration of Independence as a model for reform arguments Women reformers used the natural-rights language of the Revolution and of abolition to claim legal and political equality The convention's central demand was the immediate abolition of slavery without compensation

   A document proves what its authors argued, not what a population believed. Roughly three hundred people attended, the suffrage resolution passed only narrowly after Frederick Douglass spoke for it, and the press mocked the convention afterward.

   The text imitates the Declaration of Independence deliberately, down to "self-evident" and the list of injuries by a single "He." That borrowing is the argument: readers who already accept the form must explain why its logic stops at men.

   Correct. The excerpt takes the Revolution's natural-rights premise and applies it to marriage, property, and the vote, and the grievance about laws made without her voice is the same "no taxation without representation" logic the colonists used. Stanton and Mott arrived at it through abolition, after the 1840 World Anti-Slavery Convention in London refused to seat women delegates.

   Immediate emancipation was the demand of Garrison's Liberator and the American Anti-Slavery Society. Many at Seneca Falls were abolitionists, but this document is about the legal and political status of women; the excerpt names laws, property, and wages.

10. Which of the following best describes an effect of the congressional ban on the international slave trade that took effect in 1808?

    A large internal trade carried roughly a million enslaved people from the Upper South to the cotton states of the Deep South The enslaved population of the United States declined steadily after 1808 Southern states began adopting gradual emancipation laws Slavery became unprofitable and contracted to the coastal Southeast

    Correct. Closing the Atlantic trade did not reduce demand; the cotton gin and fresh land in Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana raised it. Virginia and Maryland planters sold people south, and the forced migration broke up most of the families it touched: a domestic trade that made enslaved people the largest form of property in the South by 1860.

    The enslaved population grew from about one million in 1810 to roughly four million by 1860, almost entirely through natural increase. Ending importation changed where enslaved people were sold, not how many there were.

    Gradual emancipation was a Northern policy adopted after the Revolution, in states such as Pennsylvania and New York. Southern states moved the other way after 1831, tightening slave codes and banning the teaching of reading.

    Cotton made slavery more profitable, not less. This choice repeats the founding generation's expectation that slavery would fade on its own: an expectation the gin and the Deep South land boom destroyed.

Short answer

1. Source: John C. Calhoun, speech in the United States Senate on the reception of antislavery petitions, February 6, 1837.

   I hold that in the present state of civilization, where two races … are brought together, the relation now existing in the slaveholding States between the two, is, instead of an evil, a good — a positive good.

   The ellipsis omits Calhoun's assertions about differences between the two groups, summarized rather than reprinted here.

   Using the excerpt, answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE historical perspective about slavery expressed in the excerpt.
   2. Briefly explain ONE specific historical development in the period 1800 to 1837 that contributed to the perspective expressed in the excerpt.
   3. Briefly explain ONE specific historical effect of that perspective on national politics in the period 1836 to 1848.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: slavery is not a necessary evil to be apologized for but a benefit, or a positive good, for the South; the relationship between the two groups is presented as beneficial rather than wrong; slavery is defended as a permanent and desirable social arrangement. Do not accept: a restatement that Calhoun supported slavery with no reference to the shift away from calling it an evil; a claim that Calhoun urged secession, which this excerpt does not say.
   • (b) Accept, with an explanation of how it led to the perspective: the cotton boom after the gin and the opening of Deep South land, which made enslaved labor far more valuable; the domestic slave trade after 1808; the rise of immediatist abolition after Garrison's Liberator in 1831 and the American Anti-Slavery Society's petition and pamphlet campaigns; Nat Turner's rising in 1831 and the Virginia emancipation debate that followed. Do not accept: naming a development with no link to why Southerners changed their public defense of slavery; events after 1837.
   • (c) Accept, with an explanation of the political consequence: the House gag rule tabling antislavery petitions from 1836 until John Quincy Adams won repeal in 1844; Southern insistence on annexing Texas as slave territory; the sectional split of the House vote on the Wilmot Proviso in 1846; the formation of the Free Soil Party in 1848. Do not accept: the Compromise of 1850, the Kansas-Nebraska Act, or the Civil War, all outside the window; "it caused tension" without a named development.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a Calhoun argues that slavery is not an evil the South should apologize for but a good thing: a "positive good." That is a change from the founding generation's line that slavery was a necessary evil that would eventually die out; Calhoun says the arrangement should be defended openly and kept.

   b One development that led to this was the growth of the cotton economy. After the cotton gin made short-staple cotton profitable, planters poured into Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and after 1808 a domestic slave trade carried about a million people from the Upper South to work that land. Once enslaved people were the South's most valuable property, apologizing for slavery meant apologizing for the region's whole economy, so its defenders needed an argument that it was right rather than merely unavoidable.

   c One effect was the gag rule. Because Southern members insisted that slavery could not even be debated as an evil, the House voted from 1836 on to table every antislavery petition without reading it. That turned an argument about slavery into an argument about the right of petition and free speech, which won the abolitionists Northern allies who had not cared much about slavery before: John Quincy Adams fought the rule for eight years until the House repealed it in 1844.

2. Answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE way the Market Revolution changed work in the northeastern United States in the period 1815 to 1848.
   2. Briefly explain ONE way a reform movement in the period 1820 to 1848 responded to social change.
   3. Briefly explain ONE way the expansion of voting rights in the 1820s and 1830s changed American politics.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: production moved from household to factory, as at Waltham in 1814 and Lowell; young farm women earned cash wages in textile mills; interchangeable parts let unskilled workers assemble goods once made by artisans; Irish and German immigrants took mill, canal, and railroad work; a salaried middle class of clerks and managers appeared. Do not accept: "there were more factories" with no change in how people worked; developments outside the Northeast or outside the dates.
   • (b) Accept, with the connection made explicit: temperance societies responding to drinking in a wage-earning, cash-paid workforce; Horace Mann's common schools responding to immigration and an urban population; Dorothea Dix's 1843 asylum campaign; Lowell women's ten-hour petitions in 1845; utopian communities such as New Harmony, Brook Farm, or Oneida rejecting competitive market society. Do not accept: naming a reform movement without saying what social change it answered.
   • (c) Accept, with an explanation: states dropped property qualifications, turnout roughly doubled between 1824 and 1828, and candidates had to campaign directly through rallies, party newspapers, and conventions; presidents such as Jackson claimed to speak for the whole people against Congress and the courts; the second party system of Democrats and Whigs organized mass electorates. Do not accept: "more people could vote" with no political consequence; suffrage expansions for groups other than white men, which did not occur in this period.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a Work moved out of the household and into the factory. The Boston Manufacturing Company put spinning and weaving under one roof at Waltham in 1814, and mills at Lowell then hired unmarried women off New England farms and paid them cash wages on a clock-governed schedule, instead of families producing cloth at home for their own use.

   b The temperance movement responded to that change. When men earned cash wages away from the farm, drinking became a household danger in a new way, since a week's pay could disappear before it reached the family. The American Temperance Society, founded in 1826, recast drinking as a moral problem that wives and ministers should organize against, and alcohol consumption fell sharply over the next two decades.

   c The expansion of the vote changed how politicians had to win. Once states dropped property qualifications for white men, turnout roughly doubled between 1824 and 1828, so candidates could no longer rely on deference from a small electorate. Jackson's supporters built the first mass party (rallies, party newspapers, and national nominating conventions), and Jackson claimed that as the only officer elected by the whole nation he spoke for the people against Congress and the courts.

Lesson 5.1 · Period 5 · CED topics 5.2–5.3

Manifest Destiny and the Mexican-American War, 1844–1848

Expansion was not new in 1844, but the word for it was. John L. O'Sullivan, a Democratic editor, named the impulse manifest destiny, turning an argument about land into a claim about Providence. The motives underneath were ordinary: cotton acreage, Pacific harbors, farmland cheaper than Ohio's.

James K. Polk won in 1844 promising both Texas and Oregon. He took both within two years, one by treaty and one by war.

Lesson 5.2 · Period 5 · CED topics 5.4–5.5

The Compromise of 1850 and the widening sectional conflict

California's gold-rush population forced the question the Wilmot Proviso had left open. In 1849 California asked to enter free, which would break the Senate balance the South relied on to block antislavery legislation. Henry Clay, in his last session, proposed a package of trades.

It failed as one bill. Stephen Douglas then pushed the pieces through separately, each with a different majority, and Millard Fillmore signed them. The settlement lasted four years.

Lesson 5.3 · Period 5 · CED topics 5.6–5.7

The failure of compromise, 1854–1861

Compromise had worked twice because both sections accepted a line on a map, 36°30′ in 1820, a package of trades in 1850. Between 1854 and 1857 Congress and then the Supreme Court destroyed the line and the power to draw one, and built nothing to replace them.

Stephen Douglas began it: he needed Southern votes to organize Nebraska for a railroad, and the price was popular sovereignty where the Missouri Compromise had barred slavery.

Lesson 5.4 · Period 5 · CED topic 5.8

Mobilizing for war: government, economy, and emancipation

Neither side was built for the war it got. The Union had roughly 22 million people to the Confederacy's 9 million and nearly all the country's factories and railroads; the Confederacy had interior lines and many of the army's best officers.

Turning that into armies took a government neither section had wanted in 1860. Both conscripted men, taxed incomes, printed money, and jailed critics; the Union also passed the economic program departed Southern members had blocked.

Lesson 5.5 · Period 5 · CED topics 5.8–5.9

Military conflict and the end of the war, 1861–1865

The Union had to conquer a country the size of western Europe; the Confederacy only had to avoid losing until the North quit or Europe intervened. That asymmetry shaped Union strategy: Winfield Scott's Anaconda Plan proposed strangling the South by blockade and control of the Mississippi rather than seeking one decisive battle.

The turn came in the second half of 1863, and it was as much diplomatic as military.

Lesson 5.6 · Period 5 · CED topic 5.10

Reconstruction and its failure, 1865–1877

Four million people were free in 1865 and almost none of them owned land. That set the terms of Reconstruction: freedpeople wanted land, schools, legal marriage, reunited families, and the vote; white Southerners wanted a labor force.

Andrew Johnson readmitted states quickly and pardoned generously. When those states sent former Confederates to Congress and passed Black Codes binding freedpeople to year-long contracts, Republicans took control of the process.

Unit 5 review · 10 multiple-choice · 2 short-answer

Period 5 review: 1844–1877

Ten exam-style multiple-choice items and two short-answer questions on Manifest Destiny and the war with Mexico, the collapse of compromise, the Civil War, and Reconstruction and its retreat: the period's through-line is that every territorial gain forced the country to decide what slavery's future would be.

Multiple choice

1. Source: John L. O'Sullivan, "Annexation," United States Magazine and Democratic Review, 1845.

   … other nations have undertaken to intrude themselves into it … for the avowed object of thwarting our policy … limiting our greatness and checking the fulfilment of our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.

   Which of the following best describes the argument made in the excerpt?

   Annexing Texas is necessary to guarantee that slavery can expand westward Expansion across the continent is a destiny granted by Providence that foreign interference cannot legitimately obstruct The United States should acquire new territory only by purchase and treaty rather than by war European powers hold a legitimate interest in Texas that the United States must negotiate

   Slavery is exactly what the passage does not mention, and the silence is the strategy. O'Sullivan needed Democrats who were uneasy about adding a slave state to stop asking that question, so he recast a sectional bargain as a national and providential mission.

   Correct. The argument converts a contested policy choice into an obligation: the continent has been "allotted by Providence," population growth makes taking it natural, and anyone who objects is an intruder. That is why the phrase stuck: it supplied a vocabulary in which expansion needed no further justification.

   No method is endorsed or ruled out. Polk's administration used both, annexing Texas by joint resolution in 1845, settling Oregon by treaty at the 49th parallel in 1846, and taking the Southwest by war in 1846–1848.

   The excerpt calls foreign involvement "hostile interference" undertaken to thwart American policy. Choosing this option reverses the passage's stance toward Britain and France, which had both encouraged an independent Texas.

2. The territory gained in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) most directly contributed to which of the following?

   The immediate admission of California to the Union as a slave state A congressional fight over slavery in the territories in which votes divided by section rather than by party A treaty commitment by the United States to abolish slavery in the ceded lands The collapse of the Whig Party within a year of the treaty

   California's gold-rush population petitioned to enter free in 1849 and was admitted free in the Compromise of 1850. Its free status is what broke the Senate's sectional balance and forced the compromise in the first place.

   Correct. David Wilmot's proviso to bar slavery from any land taken from Mexico passed the House repeatedly and died in the Senate, and the roll calls split North against South instead of Democrat against Whig. That is the measurable moment when section began to outrank party: the pattern that produced the Free Soil Party in 1848 and the Republicans in 1854.

   The treaty transferred territory, set the Rio Grande boundary, paid Mexico $15 million, and addressed the property and citizenship of Mexicans who stayed. Slavery in the cession was left for Congress to fight over, which is precisely the trouble.

   The Whigs won the very next election, running Zachary Taylor in 1848. The party broke apart after the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, when it could no longer hold Northern and Southern wings together on the territorial question.

3. Source: Fugitive Slave Act, September 18, 1850 (Sections 5 and 6).

   … and all good citizens are hereby commanded to aid and assist in the prompt and efficient execution of this law, whenever their services may be required … In no trial or hearing under this act shall the testimony of such alleged fugitive be admitted in evidence …

   A historian would most likely use the excerpt to support which of the following claims about the Compromise of 1850?

   Its enforcement provisions pulled Northerners into upholding slavery and so deepened sectional conflict It settled the status of slavery in the western territories for a generation It demonstrated that antislavery Northerners now controlled Congress It extended the protection of a jury trial to people accused of escaping slavery

   Correct. Commanding "all good citizens" to assist and barring the accused from testifying moved recapture out of Northern courtrooms and onto Northern streets. A merchant with no quarrel with slavery in Mississippi could be ordered into a posse on his own block, which is why states answered with personal liberty laws and crowds answered in Boston and Syracuse.

   The settlement lasted four years. Utah and New Mexico were organized on popular sovereignty rather than a fixed line, and the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 applied the same principle where the Missouri Compromise had barred slavery, reopening everything.

   The law is evidence of the opposite. It was the price Southern senators set for admitting California free, drafted by a Congress in which they held an effective veto; a Northern-dominated Congress would not have written it.

   Section 6 does the reverse: it bars the accused person's own testimony, and federal commissioners decided cases without juries while being paid ten dollars for a certificate of removal and five for a denial. Misreading a denial of rights as a grant of rights is the trap here.

4. Which of the following best describes the Northern response to the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850?

   Northern legislatures repealed existing protections in order to comply with the federal statute Northern opinion accepted the law because its effects were confined to the South Several states passed personal liberty laws, crowds attempted rescues, and antislavery writing reached a mass audience Congress repealed the law within two years under Northern pressure

   The movement ran the other way: Northern states strengthened personal liberty laws after 1850, guaranteeing hearings and forbidding state officials and jails from assisting recapture. Southerners cited those laws as proof the North would not keep its bargains.

   The law's design made that impossible, since enforcement happened where the accused was found, in Northern cities. Its national reach is exactly what turned indifferent Northerners into opponents.

   Correct. Massachusetts and other states passed personal liberty laws, crowds freed Jerry Henry in Syracuse in 1851 and fought over Anthony Burns in Boston in 1854, Underground Railroad networks including Harriet Tubman's carried people to Canada, and Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) sold some 300,000 copies in a year by making the law's human cost vivid.

   The act stayed on the books until Congress repealed it in 1864, during the Civil War. Confusing loud resistance with legislative success misses the point that the law's survival is what kept the grievance alive for a decade.

5. Source: Abraham Lincoln, speech accepting the Republican nomination for the United States Senate, Springfield, Illinois, June 16, 1858.

   A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure, permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved … but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other.

   Which of the following best describes Lincoln's argument in the excerpt?

   The Union would shortly break apart into two independent nations The nation could not remain permanently divided over slavery and would eventually settle into one system or the other Slavery must be abolished immediately in the states where it already existed Allowing the settlers of each territory to vote on slavery was the fairest available solution

   Lincoln says plainly that he does not expect the Union to be dissolved or the house to fall. He predicts the division will end, not the country: a distinction his opponents deliberately blurred by calling the speech a call for war.

   Correct. The claim is about direction, not timing: after Kansas-Nebraska and Dred Scott, Lincoln argued, the country was drifting toward making slavery lawful everywhere, so Republicans had to stop its extension or watch it become national. Framing it that way also told Illinois Republicans why they could not safely back Douglas.

   Republicans in 1858 opposed slavery's extension into the territories and accepted that the Constitution protected it in the states where it existed. Immediate abolition everywhere was Garrison's position, and Lincoln was regularly attacked for refusing it.

   Popular sovereignty was Douglas's position, and the speech is an attack on it. Lincoln's point is that a supposedly neutral procedure had produced fraud in Kansas and, after Dred Scott, could not lawfully exclude slavery at all.

6. Which of the following was the most direct political consequence of Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)?

   The Missouri Compromise line of 36°30′ was restored across the western territories Popular sovereignty was confirmed as the constitutional rule for organizing territories Seven Southern states seceded from the Union within the year The Republican Party's central program, barring slavery from the territories, was declared beyond the power of Congress

   Taney's opinion voided the Missouri Compromise rather than restoring it, holding that Congress had no power to bar slavery from a territory. The line had already been repealed in practice by the Kansas-Nebraska Act three years earlier.

   The decision undercut popular sovereignty too, since a territorial legislature exercises powers delegated by Congress and Congress was said to lack the power to exclude slavery. Douglas's Freeport answer in 1858, that settlers could exclude slavery by refusing to pass a slave code, was an attempt to escape that problem, and it cost him the South.

   Secession followed Lincoln's election in November 1860, not the decision. Seven states left by February 1861, more than three years after the ruling; treating an important cause as an immediate cause is the error here.

   Correct. Republicans had organized on one plank, no slavery in the territories, and the Court ruled that plank unconstitutional. That pushed Republicans toward the conclusion that only capturing the presidency, and eventually the Court, could stop expansion, which made the election of 1860 the decisive test.

7. Description of: a table comparing the resources of the Union and the Confederacy at the start of the war in 1861.

   The table gives the Union about 22 million people and the Confederacy about 9 million, of whom roughly 3.5 million were enslaved. It shows the Union with roughly two-thirds of the country's railroad mileage, about 22,000 miles to about 9,000, and with the great majority of its manufacturing capacity, shown as roughly nine-tenths of national output.

   Which of the following best explains how Confederate leaders expected to win a war despite the disparities shown in the table?

   They expected to capture and hold the industrial cities of the North They expected to fight defensively until European recognition and Northern war weariness forced a negotiated peace They expected enslaved men to serve in Confederate armies in large numbers They expected Kentucky, Maryland, and Missouri to secede and reverse the imbalance shown

   Conquest was the Union's problem, not the Confederacy's. The two Confederate invasions of the North, into Maryland in 1862 and Pennsylvania in 1863, were raids meant to win recognition and break Northern will, and both were turned back at Antietam and Gettysburg.

   Correct. The Confederacy needed only to survive: hold interior lines, make the North pay for every mile, and count on British and French dependence on cotton to bring recognition. The strategy was plausible and it failed for reasons the table hints at: the blockade, the loss of the Mississippi at Vicksburg, and a Northern economy that could absorb the cost through 1864.

   The Confederacy relied on enslaved labor to grow food and build fortifications, but it refused to arm enslaved men until a desperate law passed in March 1865, weeks before surrender. The Union did the opposite, enlisting about 180,000 Black soldiers after the Emancipation Proclamation.

   Confederate leaders did court the border states, and Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, and later West Virginia all stayed with the Union, which is one reason Lincoln exempted them from the Emancipation Proclamation. Even had they gone, the population and manufacturing gap in the table would have narrowed rather than reversed.

8. Source: Abraham Lincoln, address at the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery, Gettysburg, November 19, 1863.

   Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. … that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.

   A historian would most likely use the excerpt to support which of the following claims about the Union war effort?

   Lincoln recast the war's cost as a test of whether democratic self-government could survive, in order to hold Northern support Lincoln made the destruction of slavery the openly stated purpose of the war Lincoln used the occasion to announce a change in Union military strategy Lincoln conceded that the seceded states had a constitutional right to leave the Union

   Correct. He spoke to a North that had absorbed Gettysburg's casualties and the New York draft riots, and in under three minutes he turned an appalling cost into an obligation owed the dead and to self-government itself. What the speech leaves out is part of the evidence: omitting slavery and the South let a divided North agree on why to keep fighting.

   The address never names slavery, secession, or the South. Lincoln invokes "all men are created equal," which points that way, but the explicit statement that slavery caused the war came in the Second Inaugural of March 1865.

   It was a dedication of a cemetery, and Lincoln was not the day's main speaker. Strategy in 1864 (Grant in Virginia, Sherman toward Atlanta) was set by commanders and announced in orders, not at ceremonies.

   Lincoln's consistent position was that secession was legally void and the rebellion was an insurrection within the United States, which is why the Emancipation Proclamation was issued as a war measure against states in rebellion rather than against a foreign country.

9. Which of the following best explains why Congress proposed the Fourteenth Amendment in 1866?

   To abolish slavery throughout the United States To secure the Civil Rights Act of 1866 against a future Congress or Court and to bind states that had passed Black Codes To guarantee that no state could deny the vote on account of race To readmit the former Confederate states on the terms President Johnson had set in 1865

   Slavery was abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment, ratified in December 1865. The problem the Fourteenth addressed was what happened next: Black Codes in the readmitted states bound freedpeople to year-long labor contracts and restricted their movement, testimony, and property.

   Correct. Congress had passed the Civil Rights Act over Johnson's veto and feared a later Congress could repeal it or a court strike it down, so it wrote birthright citizenship, due process, and equal protection into the Constitution. The commands run against "any State," which later let the Court narrow the amendment by holding it did not reach private discrimination.

   That is the Fifteenth Amendment, ratified in 1870. The Fourteenth only threatened to reduce a state's representation in Congress if it denied the vote to adult male citizens, a penalty that was never actually applied.

   Congress proposed the amendment against Johnson, not with him. He had readmitted states quickly and pardoned generously, those states sent former Confederates to Congress, and Republicans responded by taking control of Reconstruction and requiring ratification as a condition of readmission.

10. Description of: a wood engraving published in a national illustrated weekly in November 1867.

    A line of Black men waits at a polling place. The first, a workman in shirtsleeves carrying his tools, places a folded ballot in a box while a white election official watches. Behind him stand a man in a soldier's uniform and an older man in a worn but carefully brushed suit. Other voters wait in an orderly line that continues out of the frame.

    The engraving described most directly reflects which of the following developments?

    Ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment, which barred racial denial of the vote nationwide The Freedmen's Bureau's distribution of confiscated plantation land to freedpeople Black male suffrage in the former Confederacy under the Military Reconstruction Acts of 1867 The effect of poll taxes and literacy tests on Black participation in Southern elections

    The Fifteenth Amendment was ratified in 1870, three years after this image. Congressional Reconstruction came first and by a different route: federal statute imposed on the former Confederate states as a condition of readmission, not a constitutional guarantee applying everywhere.

    Land is the great absence of Reconstruction. The Bureau ran schools, negotiated labor contracts, and legalized marriages, but Johnson returned most confiscated land to former owners, which left freedpeople working as sharecroppers on land they did not own.

    Correct. The Military Reconstruction Acts of 1867 divided the South into military districts and required new state constitutions written by conventions elected with Black male participation. Registration and voting followed immediately, and roughly two thousand Black men held office during Reconstruction, including Senators Hiram Revels and Blanche K. Bruce of Mississippi.

    Poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses came a generation later, beginning with Mississippi's constitution of 1890. The image shows the moment those devices were later designed to undo, so reading it as disfranchisement inverts the chronology.

Short answer

1. Source: Abraham Lincoln, Second Inaugural Address, March 4, 1865.

   These slaves constituted a peculiar and powerful interest. All knew that this interest was, somehow, the cause of the war. To strengthen, perpetuate, and extend this interest was the object for which the insurgents would rend the Union, even by war …

   Using the excerpt, answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE historical perspective expressed in the excerpt about the cause of the Civil War.
   2. Briefly explain ONE specific historical development in the period 1846 to 1861 that supports the perspective expressed in the excerpt.
   3. Briefly explain ONE specific historical development in the period 1863 to 1877 that resulted from the war Lincoln describes.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: slavery was the cause of the war; the South seceded to protect and extend slavery as an economic and political interest; both sides understood slavery to be at the root of the conflict. Do not accept: "states' rights" or tariffs offered as Lincoln's view, since the excerpt names the slave interest; a summary of the excerpt's tone with no claim about causation.
   • (b) Accept, with an explanation of how it supports the claim: the Wilmot Proviso of 1846 and the sectional roll calls that followed; the Compromise of 1850 and the Fugitive Slave Act; the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 and Bleeding Kansas; Dred Scott (1857); the founding of the Republican Party on the single plank of no slavery in the territories; the secession declarations of 1860–1861 naming slavery. Do not accept: a development named without connecting it to slavery as a cause; anything outside 1846–1861.
   • (c) Accept, with an explanation: the Thirteenth Amendment (1865) abolishing slavery; the Fourteenth (1868) establishing birthright citizenship and equal protection; the Fifteenth (1870) barring racial denial of the vote; the Freedmen's Bureau; Black officeholding under Congressional Reconstruction; the spread of sharecropping in the absence of land redistribution; Klan violence and the Enforcement Acts; the end of federal support in 1877. Do not accept: developments after 1877, such as Plessy or Mississippi's 1890 constitution.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a Lincoln says that slavery was the cause of the war. He calls enslaved people a "peculiar and powerful interest" and argues that the Confederacy went to war to strengthen and extend that interest, so he is rejecting the idea that the war was about anything else.

   b The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 supports his claim. Stephen Douglas organized the territories on popular sovereignty, which repealed the Missouri Compromise line, and proslavery and free-state settlers then fought over Kansas with rival governments, the sack of Lawrence, and John Brown's killings at Pottawatomie Creek. People did not travel to Kansas and shoot each other over tariffs; they did it because whether slavery expanded was the question that mattered, which is what Lincoln means by "all knew."

   c One development that resulted was the Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868. After Southern states passed Black Codes that bound freedpeople to year-long contracts, Congress wrote birthright citizenship, due process, and equal protection into the Constitution and made ratification a condition of readmission. Winning the war destroyed slavery, but it did not by itself settle what freedom meant, and the amendment was the attempt to fix that answer beyond the reach of a future Congress.

2. Answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE way the Reconstruction amendments changed the legal status of African Americans.
   2. Briefly explain ONE way African Americans acted to shape Reconstruction in the period 1865 to 1877.
   3. Briefly explain ONE reason federal support for Reconstruction had ended by 1877.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery; the Fourteenth made citizenship national and by birth and required states to provide due process and equal protection; the Fifteenth barred denial of the vote on account of race. Do not accept: a general statement that African Americans "became free" with no amendment named; claims that the amendments guaranteed land, education, or women's suffrage.
   • (b) Accept, with an explanation of what the action accomplished: registering and voting under the Military Reconstruction Acts; serving in state conventions, legislatures, and Congress, including Revels and Bruce; founding independent churches and schools; reuniting families and legalizing marriages through the Freedmen's Bureau; negotiating labor terms and refusing gang labor, which pushed planters toward sharecropping. Do not accept: passive phrasing in which freedpeople only receive rights; actions outside 1865–1877.
   • (c) Accept, with an explanation: organized white violence including the Klan, which raised the cost of federal enforcement; the depression that began in 1873, which pushed Northern attention to the economy; Supreme Court decisions narrowing the Fourteenth Amendment, such as the Slaughterhouse cases and United States v. Cruikshank; Northern political fatigue and the Democratic recapture of the House in 1874; the disputed election of 1876 resolved by withdrawing federal support in 1877. Do not accept: "people stopped caring" with no development named.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a The Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, made anyone born in the United States a citizen of the nation and of the state where they lived, and it required every state to give all persons due process and the equal protection of the laws. That overturned Dred Scott, which had held that Black Americans could not be citizens at all.

   b African Americans used the vote the Military Reconstruction Acts gave them. Black men registered in large numbers in 1867, elected delegates to the state constitutional conventions, and then held office: roughly two thousand men served, including Hiram Revels and Blanche K. Bruce in the United States Senate. Those conventions wrote the South's first public school systems and dropped property qualifications for voting, so Black participation changed what Southern state governments actually did.

   c Federal support ended partly because the North's attention moved elsewhere after the Panic of 1873. The depression put unemployment and the currency at the center of politics, Democrats took the House in 1874, and protecting Black voters in the South came to look expensive and endless next to Klan violence that federal troops had to suppress again and again. When the 1876 election was disputed, Republicans settled it by taking the presidency and withdrawing the federal support that had kept Reconstruction governments in place.

Lesson 6.1 · Period 6 · CED topics 6.2–6.3

Westward expansion and its effects on Native Americans, 1865–1898

The West was not settled by lone pioneers. Federal policy did the heavy work: land grants built the transcontinental railroad, joined in Utah in May 1869; the Homestead Act of 1862 promised 160 acres to anyone who farmed it five years; the Army garrisoned the routes.

For the Plains nations the same decades closed every option. Hide hunters shot out the bison, and treaties were rewritten wherever gold or track crossed guaranteed ground.

Lesson 6.2 · Period 6 · CED topic 6.4

The "New South": industry, sharecropping, and Jim Crow

Henry Grady, editor of the Atlanta Constitution, told a New York audience in 1886 that the South had buried the war and was building mills and furnaces with northern capital. Part of that was real: Piedmont textile mills, Birmingham steel, new rail mileage.

Most of the region was not. Cotton still ruled, and most who grew it, Black and white, worked land they did not own on credit they could not clear, while Reconstruction's political gains were taken back by law.

Lesson 6.3 · Period 6 · CED topics 6.5–6.6

Technological innovation and the rise of industrial capitalism

Cheap steel changed everything downstream. The Bessemer process made steel at a fraction of the old cost, and cheap steel meant rails, bridges, and frames tall enough to build cities upward. Electricity, the telephone, and refrigerated cars did the rest: a national market appeared where regional ones had been.

That created a new problem: how to run a firm too large for one owner's eye, and how to justify the fortunes it threw off.

Lesson 6.4 · Period 6 · CED topic 6.7

Labor in the Gilded Age, 1877–1894

Industrial work paid in cash and took everything else. Sixty-hour weeks were ordinary, injury was common and uncompensated, and children worked in mills and coal breakers. Real wages rose across the period but fell hard in every depression, and the employer set them alone.

Workers organized anyway. The question that defined the era was whether they had any standing in law when they did.

Lesson 6.5 · Period 6 · CED topics 6.8–6.9

Immigration, migration, and the industrial city

Industry needed hands faster than American farms could release them, so the cities took them from everywhere. Roughly twelve million immigrants arrived between 1870 and 1900, and after 1880 more came from Italy, Poland, Greece, and the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires than from Britain, Ireland, and Germany.

They landed in cities with no plan for them, and institutions grew up to fill the gap: some charitable, some predatory, most of both.

Lesson 6.6 · Period 6 · CED topics 6.10–6.12

Responses to immigration and the Gilded Age's rival remedies

Not everyone read the crowded city as a problem of housing; many read it as a problem of people. Nativism ran through the period: Protestant suspicion of Catholic and Jewish newcomers, union fear of wage competition, and on the Pacific coast a campaign against Chinese labor that produced the first federal law excluding a nationality.

Others blamed the system instead of the newcomers, and the 1880s and 1890s produced a crowd of competing remedies.

Lesson 6.7 · Period 6 · CED topic 6.13

Politics in the Gilded Age and the realignment of 1896

Gilded Age elections were close and loud. Turnout ran near eighty percent, loyalty followed region, religion, and the memory of the war, and no president between 1877 and 1897 won a decisive mandate.

What the parties actually fought over was narrow (patronage, the tariff, the currency) until the depression that began in 1893 forced a larger question into the open: whose interests was the government for?

Unit 6 review · 10 multiple-choice · 2 short-answer

Period 6 review: 1865–1898

Ten exam-style multiple-choice items and two short-answer questions on the West and Native dispossession, the New South and Jim Crow, industrial capitalism and labor, the immigrant city, and the Gilded Age politics that ended in the realignment of 1896.

Multiple choice

1. Description of: a photograph taken in a Kansas rail town in the early 1870s.

   A squared stack of bison hides several times the height of a man fills most of the frame, piled beside a railroad siding. Three men in work clothes stand at the base of the stack, and a loaded wagon waits behind them. Similar piles are visible along the track in the background.

   The activity shown most directly contributed to which of the following?

   Federal protection of the herds so that Plains nations could remain self-supporting The collapse of the Plains nations' subsistence economy, which pushed them onto reservations and government rations The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, which guaranteed the Black Hills to the Lakota The end of the long cattle drives from Texas to the Kansas railheads

   No such policy existed. Army officers and Indian Office officials generally welcomed the slaughter, saying openly that destroying the herds would do what campaigns had not: force the Plains nations to accept reservation life.

   Correct. Plains nations built food, clothing, shelter, and trade around the bison, and commercial hide hunting supplied by the railroads reduced the herds to remnants within about fifteen years. Once the animals were gone, independence was gone with them, and nations that had negotiated from strength in the 1860s were dependent on rations by the 1880s.

   The Fort Laramie Treaty came in 1868, before this scene, and the government broke it: the Black Hills gold rush of 1874 put miners on guaranteed land, which led to Little Bighorn in 1876 and then to the seizure of the hills.

   The causation runs the other way. Clearing the bison opened the southern plains to cattle, and the drives to Abilene and Dodge City grew in these years; they ended later, when barbed wire, railroads reaching Texas, and the hard winters of the mid-1880s made them unnecessary.

2. Which of the following best describes the effect of the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887?

   It restored to Native nations land taken during the Plains Wars It divided reservations into individual allotments and sold the remainder, sharply reducing Native landholding It recognized tribal self-government and ended federal supervision of reservations It closed the federal boarding schools that had been opened since 1879

   The act transferred land away from Native nations rather than back to them. Native holdings fell from roughly 138 million acres to about 48 million by 1934, most of the loss coming through allotment and the sale of "surplus" land.

   Correct. Allotment assigned 160 acres to a head of household and opened everything left over to settlers. Replacing collective tribal title with individual title that could be taxed, leased, or sold dissolved the legal basis of the nation itself, which is why the CED treats Dawes as assimilation policy, not land policy.

   That describes the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, which ended allotment and restored a measure of tribal government. Dawes assumed the opposite: that the tribe was the obstacle and the individual farmer the goal.

   Boarding schools expanded in these years. Carlisle opened in 1879 and the model spread, with schools targeting children's languages, clothing, and family ties as part of the same assimilation program the Dawes Act served.

3. Source: Justice John Marshall Harlan, dissenting in Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896).

   The white race deems itself to be the dominant race in this country. … But in view of the Constitution, in the eye of the law, there is no superior, dominant, ruling class of citizens. There is no caste here. Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens.

   A historian would most likely use the excerpt to support which of the following claims about the 1890s?

   The Supreme Court unanimously upheld segregation as consistent with the Fourteenth Amendment Federal courts in this period enforced the Fourteenth Amendment vigorously against Southern states A fully developed constitutional argument against segregation existed at the time and was rejected by the Court Congress answered the decision by passing new civil rights legislation

   The vote was 7–1, and this excerpt is the dissent: the single justice who refused. Treating a controversial ruling as unanimous also erases the evidence that contemporaries saw the problem, which is what makes a dissent useful to a historian.

   The trend ran the other way. From the Slaughterhouse cases through United States v. Cruikshank and the Civil Rights Cases of 1883, the Court narrowed the amendment, largely by holding that it reached state action and not private discrimination.

   Correct. Harlan states a flat rule rather than balancing interests, because a dissent is addressed to a later court. That is the value of the document: it shows that "separate but equal" was not the only reading available in 1896 but a choice the majority made, so the outcome cannot be excused as the inevitable thinking of the age.

   No federal civil rights statute passed between 1875 and 1957. Congress in the 1890s went the other direction, abandoning a federal elections bill in 1890 and repealing major enforcement provisions in 1894.

4. Which of the following best explains how Southern states disfranchised Black voters after 1890 without violating the text of the Fifteenth Amendment?

   They adopted poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses that never mentioned race but were administered by white registrars They amended the Fifteenth Amendment to permit racial qualifications for voting They obtained federal troops to bar Black voters from the polls They persuaded Congress to repeal the Enforcement Acts, which had guaranteed Black suffrage

   Correct. Mississippi's constitution of 1890 required a poll tax and a literacy or "understanding" test judged by local white officials, and Louisiana added a grandfather clause in 1898 exempting men whose grandfathers had voted before 1867. Because the rules were racially neutral on their face, they survived challenge while cutting Black registration to a small fraction of those eligible.

   The Fifteenth Amendment has never been amended. Its language is the reason disfranchisement had to be indirect: the whole design problem these state constitutions solved was how to exclude without saying so.

   Federal troops had been the force protecting Black voting, and their withdrawal in 1877 is what made disfranchisement possible. After 1877 the federal government was absent from Southern elections, not enlisted against Black voters.

   Congress did repeal major enforcement provisions in 1894, which mattered, but the Enforcement Acts were tools for punishing interference: the right itself came from the Fifteenth Amendment and survived the repeal. Disfranchisement worked through state constitutions and registrars, not through the absence of a federal statute.

5. Source: Andrew Carnegie, "Wealth," North American Review, 1889.

   The problem of our age is the proper administration of wealth, so that the ties of brotherhood may still bind together the rich and poor in harmonious relationship. … This, then, is held to be the duty of the man of wealth: … to consider all surplus revenues which come to him simply as trust funds.

   Which of the following best describes the argument Carnegie makes in the excerpt?

   Great fortunes should be taxed heavily to fund public services Wages should rise with a firm's profits so that workers share its gains The wealthy should treat their surplus as a trust to be administered for the public good during their lifetimes Government should break up the largest industrial combinations

   Taxation is precisely the alternative Carnegie is arguing against. His answer to inequality keeps the decision in the hands of the person who made the fortune, which is why he wrote for a magazine read by the propertied in a decade of strikes and farm revolt.

   Wages are not part of the program either. Three years after this essay his partner Henry Clay Frick broke the union at the Homestead works with Pinkertons and state militia, after a wage dispute: a gap between philanthropy and labor policy the exam expects you to notice.

   Correct. Carnegie concedes that inequality has become a political problem, the "ties of brotherhood" need repair, and answers with stewardship: the rich hold surplus in trust and should give it away, as he did through libraries and schools. The claim is moral, but its political effect is to make regulation look unnecessary.

   Carnegie built one of the largest combinations in the country through vertical integration, buying ore ranges, coke works, ships, and rails. Social Darwinist arguments of this kind treated concentration as the natural result of fitness, not as something to be undone.

6. Federal government action during the Pullman strike of 1894 most directly contributed to which of the following?

   Legal recognition of collective bargaining rights for industrial unions The growth of the Knights of Labor into the nation's largest labor organization The establishment of the court injunction as a dependable employer weapon against strikes A federally mandated eight-hour day for railroad workers

   Federal protection for collective bargaining came four decades later, with the National Labor Relations Act of 1935. In the 1890s the law treated a strike that interfered with commerce or the mails as a restraint to be enjoined.

   The Knights had already collapsed. Their membership peaked near 700,000 in 1886, and public reaction to the Haymarket bombing that year destroyed them; by 1894 the American Railway Union and Gompers's craft-based AFL were the significant organizations.

   Correct. The attorney general obtained an injunction against the American Railway Union on the ground that the boycott obstructed the mails, Cleveland sent troops to enforce it, and the Supreme Court upheld the injunction in In re Debs (1895). Employers could now stop a strike with a court order instead of a fight, and the Sherman Antitrust Act, written against trusts, became a tool against unions.

   The Adamson Act of 1916 established the eight-hour day for railroad workers, and it came from Wilson's administration under the threat of a national strike. Nothing in 1894 improved hours; the strike ended in defeat and Eugene Debs went to jail.

7. Source: Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives, 1890.

   Long ago it was said that “one half of the world does not know how the other half lives.” That was true then. It did not know because it did not care. The half that was on top cared little for the struggles, and less for the fate of those who were underneath …

   Which of the following best describes Riis's purpose in the passage?

   To argue that immigrants themselves were responsible for conditions in the tenements To make comfortable readers see tenement conditions as something they had permitted and could change To defend machine politicians as the only reliable source of help for the urban poor To call for restricting immigration in order to relieve crowding in the cities

   The passage assigns responsibility upward, to the half "on top" that did not care. Riis's book does contain ethnic generalizations that a careful reader should flag, but the argument of this passage is about indifference among the comfortable.

   Correct. Riis was a police reporter writing for the middle-class readers who could pressure legislators, and he paired prose with flash photographs of tenement interiors so that ignorance was no longer available as an excuse. Naming that audience is what turns a description of poverty into a reform argument.

   Riis belongs to the reform tradition that competed with the machines. Tammany Hall traded coal, jobs, and favors for votes and was effective at it, but Riis's remedy was housing law and public pressure, the same path Hull House took after 1889.

   Restriction was the nativist answer, pressed by groups such as the American Protective Association and by unions worried about wages. Riis treats poverty as a condition the city built and can therefore rebuild, which points to codes and inspections rather than to the docks.

8. Source: Preamble to the platform of the People's Party, Omaha, Nebraska, July 4, 1892.

   We meet in the midst of a nation brought to the verge of moral, political, and material ruin. … The people are demoralized. … The fruits of the toil of millions are boldly stolen to build up colossal fortunes for a few.

   The excerpt most directly reflects which of the following?

   The Social Gospel's call for churches to relieve the suffering of the urban poor Nativist arguments that immigration was the source of economic distress The Populist claim that the economic system enriched a few at the expense of the farmers and workers who produced the wealth The Gospel of Wealth's defense of large fortunes as a trust held for society

   Social Gospel ministers such as Washington Gladden did attack the causes of poverty, but they worked through churches and moral appeal. This is a party platform, and the document it introduces demands state action: free silver, a graduated income tax, government ownership of the railroads, and direct election of senators.

   The passage blames a system that transfers "the fruits of the toil of millions," not newcomers. Populism did carry that tension (some of its leaders later turned to exclusion, and the Alliances courted Black farmers while segregating them), but the target here is concentrated wealth.

   Correct. The producer argument is the whole of Populism: those who grow and make things create value, and finance, railroads, and monopoly take it. Falling crop prices, freight rates set by a single line, and crop-lien debt gave Alliance farmers concrete reasons to say so by 1892, when James Weaver took twenty-two electoral votes.

   Carnegie's essay defends great fortunes as proof of fitness and asks only that they be given away well. The Omaha preamble calls the same fortunes stolen, which makes the two documents a useful pair when a question asks you to compare responses to industrial capitalism.

9. Source: William Jennings Bryan, "Cross of Gold" speech, Democratic National Convention, Chicago, July 9, 1896.

   Burn down your cities and leave our farms, and your cities will spring up again as if by magic; but destroy our farms and the grass will grow in the streets of every city in the country. … you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.

   Which of the following best describes Bryan's argument in the excerpt?

   Cities generate the nation's wealth and should therefore determine monetary policy Agriculture is the foundation of national prosperity, and a gold standard sacrifices producers to creditors Reducing the protective tariff is the central question facing the country The federal government should take ownership of the railroads and telegraph lines

   Bryan says the reverse, and says it as a challenge: cities depend on farms, not farms on cities. The image is chosen to answer eastern delegates who treated the currency question as a matter for bankers.

   Correct. Coining silver would expand the money supply and raise prices, which helps debtors repaying fixed loans with cheaper dollars: the position of farmers facing falling crop prices and mortgage payments. Bryan's audience was convention delegates rather than voters, so the case is made in moral images instead of monetary arithmetic, and it won him the nomination that night.

   The tariff had been the parties' standing quarrel for twenty years, but the depression that began in 1893 pushed money to the center. Cleveland's repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act split the Democrats and set up this convention fight.

   Government ownership of the railroads was in the Populists' Omaha Platform of 1892. The Populists fused behind Bryan in 1896, and one cost of fusion was that their broader program shrank to the single issue of silver.

10. Which of the following best describes the effect of the Interstate Commerce Act (1887) and the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) before 1900?

    They were struck down by the Supreme Court as unconstitutional exercises of federal power Courts read both statutes narrowly, so they restrained large corporations little, and the Sherman Act was turned against labor unions They broke up the major railroad systems and Standard Oil They gave the Interstate Commerce Commission the power to set railroad rates directly

    Neither statute was invalidated. The Court limited them instead, most importantly in United States v. E. C. Knight Co. (1895), which held that a sugar refining monopoly was manufacturing rather than interstate commerce and so lay outside the Sherman Act.

    Correct. The ICC could hear complaints but had to go to court to enforce its rulings, and it lost almost every case it brought in the 1890s; the Sherman Act's broad language about "restraint of trade" proved more usable against a strike than against a trust, as In re Debs (1895) confirmed. The laws mattered mainly as precedents that Progressives later gave teeth.

    Standard Oil was broken up in 1911, and serious railroad regulation arrived with the Hepburn Act of 1906: both in the Progressive Era. Reading a law's later effect back into the decade it passed is the common error here.

    Rate-setting authority is exactly what the 1887 act withheld and the Hepburn Act of 1906 supplied. The ICC's original power was to require that rates be "reasonable and just" and to sue when it thought they were not.

Short answer

1. Description of: a political cartoon published in a New York humor weekly in January 1889.

   Enormous figures in formal dress, each labeled with an industry such as steel, coal, oil, sugar, or copper, crowd through a doorway at the back of the United States Senate chamber and stand over the seated senators, who look tiny beside them. A sign above one gallery door reads that the people's entrance is closed.

   Using the image, answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE perspective about politics in the late nineteenth century expressed in the image.
   2. Briefly explain ONE specific historical development in the period 1865 to 1892 that contributed to the perspective expressed in the image.
   3. Briefly explain ONE specific government action in the period 1887 to 1900 that responded to the concerns expressed in the image.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: large corporations and trusts, not voters, control the Senate; ordinary people are shut out of a government that serves business interests; monopoly power has corrupted representative government. Do not accept: a description of what the cartoon shows with no interpretation ("there are big men in a room"); a claim about a specific senator, since the figures are industries.
   • (b) Accept, with an explanation of how it produced the perspective: the rise of trusts and holding companies such as Standard Oil after 1882; vertical integration by Carnegie and the concentration of finance under J. P. Morgan; the selection of senators by state legislatures, which made seats purchasable through party machines; railroad rebates and pooling; the use of troops and injunctions on the employer's side in strikes. Do not accept: naming an industrialist with no link to political influence; developments after 1892.
   • (c) Accept, with an explanation of what the action did and how far it went: the Interstate Commerce Act (1887) and its commission; the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890); federal antitrust prosecutions brought under it in the 1890s. Credit answers that note the limits: narrow court readings, E. C. Knight (1895), the ICC's need to sue. Do not accept: the Pendleton Act (1883), which is before the window; the Seventeenth Amendment, the Clayton Act, or the Hepburn Act, all after 1900.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a The cartoon argues that the trusts, not the voters, run the Senate. The monopolies are drawn as giants looming over senators who look small and powerless, and the people's entrance is closed, so the perspective is that industrial wealth had captured the federal government and shut ordinary citizens out.

   b One development behind this view was the growth of the trust. Rockefeller organized Standard Oil as a trust in 1882 after using railroad rebates to undersell rivals and then absorb them, and other industries copied the form. Firms that size could fund campaigns and lobby the state legislatures that chose United States senators, so it became easy to believe, with reason, that a handful of companies could decide what Congress did.

   c Congress responded with the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, which banned combinations in restraint of trade. In practice it did little to the trusts for over a decade, because in United States v. E. C. Knight Co. (1895) the Supreme Court held that a sugar refining monopoly was manufacturing rather than interstate commerce; federal prosecutors had more success using the act against striking unions. The law answered the concern in the cartoon on paper while leaving the power it depicted largely in place.

2. Answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE way industrialization changed the work of wage earners in the period 1865 to 1900.
   2. Briefly explain ONE way workers organized in response to those changes.
   3. Briefly explain ONE reason organized labor achieved limited success before 1900.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: machinery and the division of labor replaced skilled craft work with repetitive tasks; sixty-hour weeks and uncompensated injury became ordinary; employers set wages unilaterally and cut them in every depression; women and children worked in mills and coal breakers; work was paced by machinery and the clock rather than by the worker. Do not accept: "factories grew" with no change in the experience of work; conditions described only for a later period.
   • (b) Accept, with an explanation of the strategy: the Knights of Labor under Powderly admitting unskilled workers, women, and Black members and seeking cooperatives and the eight-hour day; the AFL under Gompers organizing skilled craftsmen to bargain over wages and hours; specific strikes (the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, Homestead in 1892, Pullman in 1894) described as organized action. Do not accept: naming an organization with no account of what it tried to do.
   • (c) Accept, with an explanation: federal and state force used on the employer's side, including troops in 1877 and the Pullman injunction upheld in In re Debs; employer weapons such as lockouts, blacklists, Pinkertons, and yellow-dog contracts; the collapse of the Knights after Haymarket in 1886 and public identification of labor with radicalism; divisions of skill, race, ethnicity, and sex among workers; a steady supply of immigrant and migrant labor that made replacement easy. Do not accept: "workers were poor" with no mechanism.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a Industrialization broke skilled work into simple repeated tasks set by machinery. A craftsman who had made a whole product became a hand tending one step of it, which meant the employer, not the worker, controlled the pace and could replace almost anyone quickly. Sixty-hour weeks were normal, injuries went uncompensated, and wages were cut hard in every depression.

   b Workers responded by organizing across those divisions. The Knights of Labor under Terence Powderly admitted unskilled workers, women, and Black members as fellow "producers," demanded an eight-hour day and an end to child labor, and reached roughly 700,000 members by 1886. After the Knights collapsed, Samuel Gompers's American Federation of Labor took the opposite approach, organizing only skilled craftsmen and bargaining narrowly over wages and hours because those goals could actually be won.

   c Labor's biggest obstacle was that the government entered strikes on the employer's side. President Hayes sent federal troops against the railroad strikers in 1877, state militia backed Frick at Homestead in 1892, and in 1894 the attorney general obtained an injunction against the Pullman boycott that the Supreme Court upheld in In re Debs. Once a court order could end a strike and jail its leaders, unions with sweeping goals could not survive, and only the AFL's limited program fit the environment.

Lesson 7.1 · Period 7 · CED topics 7.2–7.3

Imperialism and the Spanish-American War, 1890–1904

The census declared the frontier closed in 1890, and the 1893 depression made foreign markets look like survival rather than ambition. Alfred Thayer Mahan's The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1890) supplied the blueprint (a battleship navy, coaling stations, colonies), while missionaries and Social Darwinist talk of "fit" nations supplied the moral cover.

Cuba turned argument into war. When the USS Maine exploded in Havana harbor on February 15, 1898, Hearst's and Pulitzer's papers blamed Spain; Congress declared war in April, attaching the Teller Amendment promising not to annex Cuba.

Lesson 7.2 · Period 7 · CED topic 7.4

The Progressives: reform from city hall to the White House

Industrial growth had outrun the rules. Cities absorbed millions of newcomers without safe housing or clean water, a few firms controlled whole industries, and state legislatures answered to railroads. Progressives (urban, middle-class, expert-minded) believed investigation plus government power could fix what the market broke.

Publicity came first. Jacob Riis photographed tenements in How the Other Half Lives (1890), Ida Tarbell serialized the history of Standard Oil in McClure's from 1902, and Upton Sinclair's The Jungle (1906) aimed at meatpacking labor but horrified readers about their food.

Lesson 7.3 · Period 7 · CED topics 7.5–7.6

World War I: fighting abroad, dissent at home, 1914–1920

Wilson won reelection in 1916 on having kept the country out of the war, but neutrality was thin: American banks and factories supplied the Allies, and German submarines treated that trade as a target. The Lusitania, sunk in May 1915, took 128 American lives.

When Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917 and the intercepted Zimmermann telegram offered Mexico American territory for an alliance, Wilson asked Congress for war; it declared on April 6, 1917.

Lesson 7.4 · Period 7 · CED topics 7.7–7.9

The 1920s: mass culture and cultural conflict

The decade ran on machines and installment credit. Ford's assembly line cut the time to build a Model T to minutes and the price under $300; advertising and buy-now-pay-later terms did the same for radios and refrigerators. KDKA began broadcasting in 1920, and by 1927 The Jazz Singer had put sound in theaters: Americans were hearing the same voices.

Cultural authority ran the other way: the 1920 census found most Americans in towns and cities, flappers claimed new freedoms, and much of rural Protestant America answered with prohibition, immigration restriction, and a revived Klan, while Harding and Coolidge promised normalcy.

Lesson 7.5 · Period 7 · CED topics 7.10–7.11

The Great Depression and the New Deal, 1929–1939

The crash of October 1929 exposed what the boom had hidden: overproduction, installment debt, banks lending against inflated stock, and no insurance behind deposits. Roughly 9,000 banks failed by 1933, and the Smoot-Hawley tariff of 1930 shrank world trade. By 1933 a quarter of the workforce had no job.

Hoover was not idle: the Reconstruction Finance Corporation lent to banks and railroads in 1932. But he resisted direct federal relief, and the army's dispersal of the Bonus Army fixed his image.

Lesson 7.6 · Period 7 · CED topic 7.12

Isolation, neutrality, and the road to war, 1921–1941

Disillusion followed Versailles. The Senate stayed out of the League, and Washington bought security cheaply: naval limits by treaty in 1922, a pact renouncing war in 1928, marines withdrawn from Latin America rather than sent. When the Nye Committee reported that bankers and arms makers had profited from 1917, Congress wrote neutrality into law.

Then the aggressors moved. Roosevelt's 1937 call to quarantine them drew criticism, and he could help the democracies only within the Neutrality Acts. France's fall in June 1940 changed the arithmetic.

Lesson 7.7 · Period 7 · CED topic 7.13

World War II: mobilizing a nation, 1941–1945

War ended the Depression. The War Production Board converted auto plants to aircraft, the Office of Price Administration rationed gasoline and food, war bonds absorbed wages. Six million women entered the workforce, millions of them in war plants, and more than a million African Americans left the South for defense work.

Rights did not follow automatically. A. Philip Randolph's threatened march on Washington produced Executive Order 8802 in June 1941, barring discrimination in defense industries; the Pittsburgh Courier's Double V campaign demanded victory abroad and at home.

Lesson 7.8 · Period 7 · CED topic 7.14

Yalta, Potsdam, and the atomic age, 1944–1945

The Allies planned the peace while the war ran. At Yalta in February 1945 Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin divided occupied Germany into zones, promised free elections in liberated Europe, and agreed the Soviet Union would enter the Pacific war.

Roosevelt died in April; Germany surrendered in May. By the time Truman met Stalin at Potsdam in July, Poland's government was Soviet-controlled and the Trinity test had succeeded. The Potsdam Declaration demanded Japan's unconditional surrender.

Unit 7 review · 10 multiple-choice · 2 short-answer

Period 7 review: 1890–1945

Ten stimulus-heavy multiple-choice items and two short-answer questions covering empire, Progressivism, the world wars, the 1920s, and the New Deal: click an option to see why each choice works or fails, then write the SAQs on the clock before opening the model.

Multiple choice

1. Source: Platt Amendment, attached to the Army Appropriations Act, March 2, 1901, and written into Cuba's new constitution.

   That the government of Cuba consents that the United States may exercise the right to intervene for the preservation of Cuban independence, the maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of life, property, and individual liberty …

   The provisions in the excerpt best illustrate which of the following developments in United States foreign policy after 1898?

   A return to the policy of avoiding permanent foreign entanglements urged in Washington's Farewell Address The extension of United States citizenship and full constitutional rights to the people of territories taken from Spain The creation of a protectorate that left a country formally independent while reserving American control over its affairs The abandonment of the Monroe Doctrine in favor of joint management of the Caribbean with European powers

   This is the textbook misconception that the United States stayed isolationist until 1917. A standing right to land troops in another country is the opposite of avoiding entanglement: the Platt Amendment bound Cuba to American supervision until 1934.

   Cubans were never made United States citizens, and the Insular Cases of 1901 held that the Constitution did not follow the flag in full to the new territories. Puerto Ricans received citizenship only in 1917, under a different law.

   Correct. The Teller Amendment of 1898 had promised no annexation, so Washington got the substance without the title: Cuba kept its flag and its government, and the United States kept the right to intervene plus a naval station at Guantánamo Bay.

   The Monroe Doctrine was expanded here, not abandoned. Three years later the Roosevelt Corollary made the claim explicit by asserting an "international police power" in the hemisphere, precisely to keep European powers out.

2. Which of the following best explains why many business and political leaders supported acquiring overseas territory in the 1890s?

   The depression that began in 1893 convinced them that American farms and factories produced more than the home market could absorb The federal government needed new farmland to settle a rapidly growing rural population The United States had no navy and sought overseas bases in order to build one The Teller Amendment committed the United States to governing Cuba once Spain was defeated

   Correct. Overproduction and the 1893 depression made foreign markets look like survival rather than ambition, which is why the Open Door Notes of 1899 and 1900 asked the powers to keep China open to American trade rather than carve it into exclusive spheres.

   This confuses continental settlement with overseas empire. The 1890 census had just declared the frontier line closed, and almost none of the territory taken in 1898, islands with dense existing populations, was opened to American homesteaders.

   The causation runs the other way. Mahan's The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1890) persuaded Congress to build a battleship fleet first; the bases were wanted to coal and service a navy the country was already constructing.

   The Teller Amendment promised the reverse: that the United States would not annex Cuba. Remembering it backward is a common error; the Platt Amendment of 1901 is what supplied the control Teller had renounced.

3. Description of: a color political cartoon published in the magazine Puck, September 1904.

   An octopus labeled Standard Oil fills the center of the page. Its tentacles are wrapped around the dome of a state capitol and around figures labeled for the steel, copper, and shipping industries, and one tentacle stretches toward the White House. The caption below the drawing is a single word: "Next!"

   The point of view expressed in the cartoon most directly supported which of the following?

   The Gospel of Wealth argument that concentrated fortunes were the natural reward of competition The Populist demand for the free coinage of silver to raise farm prices Calls to restrict immigration in order to protect the wages of American workers Progressive demands for federal regulation and antitrust action against large corporations

   This is the view the cartoon attacks. Carnegie and the Social Darwinists treated great fortunes as proof of fitness; the artist treats a great fortune as a predator strangling the institutions that are supposed to check it.

   Free silver was a currency remedy aimed at farm debt, and it had already been defeated with Bryan in 1896. Nothing in the drawing concerns money supply or crop prices: the target is corporate control of politics.

   Immigration restriction was a live Progressive-era cause, but it is not this cartoon's subject. Reading any reform cartoon as a generic "reform" statement loses the point; the labels tell you which reform is meant.

   Correct. The tentacle reaching for the White House is the argument: private power has captured government and only stronger public power can pry it loose. Ida Tarbell's serial on Standard Oil ran in these same years, and the Court ordered the trust dissolved in 1911.

4. Source: President Woodrow Wilson, war message to a joint session of Congress, April 2, 1917.

   The world must be made safe for democracy. Its peace must be planted upon the tested foundations of political liberty. … We have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no conquest, no dominion. We seek no indemnities for ourselves, no material compensation for the sacrifices we shall freely make.

   Which of the following best explains the purpose of the argument Wilson makes in the excerpt?

   To persuade the Senate to ratify a treaty creating the League of Nations To present intervention as the defense of a principle rather than of American loans, trade, and shipping tied to an Allied victory To justify the Espionage and Sedition Acts' restrictions on criticism of the government To announce that the United States would remain neutral toward both sets of belligerents

   The League fight came two years later, in 1919–1920, and Wilson lost it. Sourcing questions reward getting the month right: in April 1917 he is asking for a declaration of war, not for ratification of a peace treaty.

   Correct. American banks and factories had been supplying the Allies since 1915, and submarine attacks on that trade were the immediate cause. Wilson's purpose is to lift the war above that interest, which is exactly why the excerpt denies seeking conquest, dominion, or indemnities.

   Those acts passed in 1917 and 1918, after this speech, and the message says nothing about dissent. Confusing a war message with the wartime measures it made possible collapses cause into effect.

   This reverses the document. Wilson had run for reelection in 1916 on having kept the country out of war, but unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann telegram ended neutrality; Congress declared war four days after this speech.

5. Description of: a table of annual immigration quotas set by the National Origins Act of 1924, computed as 2 percent of each nationality's foreign-born population recorded in the 1890 census.

   Country	Germany	Great Britain	Poland	Italy	Russia	Greece
   Annual quota	51,227	34,007	5,982	3,845	2,248	100

   The quotas shown best support which of the following conclusions about the National Origins Act of 1924?

   By pegging quotas to the 1890 census, the law deliberately favored immigrants from northern and western Europe The law reduced immigration by applying the same numerical ceiling to every nation The law was written mainly to restrict immigration from Mexico and the rest of Latin America The law reflected organized labor's successful demand for an end to all immigration

   Correct. Choosing 1890 as the base year was the mechanism. It measured the foreign-born population before the great wave of southern and eastern European arrivals, so the nationalities Congress wanted to exclude had almost no base to take 2 percent of.

   The numbers refute this directly: Germany's quota is more than five hundred times Greece's. A uniform ceiling would have been restriction without ranking, and ranking is the whole design.

   The 1924 Act exempted the Western Hemisphere entirely, largely because southwestern growers wanted Mexican farm labor. Restriction of Latin American immigration by numerical cap came only with the 1965 law.

   Some unions did back restriction, but the act cut immigration sharply rather than ending it, and its ranking by ancestry reflects the era's nativism and race science, not a wage argument that would have applied to all newcomers equally.

6. Source: Preamble, Social Security Act, approved August 14, 1935.

   An Act to provide for the general welfare by establishing a system of Federal old-age benefits, and by enabling the several States to make more adequate provision for aged persons, blind persons, dependent and crippled children, maternal and child welfare, public health, and the administration of their unemployment compensation laws.

   The act excerpted above most directly reflected which of the following changes in the 1930s?

   A transfer of relief work from the federal government to private charities and local almshouses The ratification of a constitutional amendment granting Congress power over social welfare Acceptance of a permanent federal responsibility for the economic security of individuals The elimination of the states' role in administering relief and insurance programs

   That describes Hoover's preference for voluntarism and local relief, which the 1932 election repudiated. The act runs the other direction, and the Supreme Court upheld it in 1937 rather than striking it down.

   No amendment was passed or needed. Congress rested the act on its taxing and spending power for the "general welfare," language the preamble itself borrows from Article I, which is why the constitutional fight was over interpretation, not text.

   Correct. Before 1935 old age and unemployment were private misfortunes handled by families, employers, or states; this act made them permanent federal commitments funded by payroll taxes, and it outlasted the Depression that produced it.

   Read the preamble again: it works by "enabling the several States." Unemployment compensation and aid to dependent children were state-run with federal money and standards, which is also how benefits varied by state and how farm and domestic workers were left out.

7. Which of the following best explains President Franklin Roosevelt's 1937 proposal to add justices to the Supreme Court?

   The Court had upheld the Wagner Act and the Social Security Act, and Roosevelt wanted to expand both The Court had voided the NIRA in 1935 and the AAA in 1936, and Roosevelt feared the rest of the New Deal would follow Congress had refused to pass the Second New Deal, so Roosevelt sought to legislate through the judiciary The Constitution fixes the Court at nine members, and Roosevelt proposed amending it

   Those rulings came in 1937, after the plan was introduced, and they are usually read as the Court's retreat under pressure. Putting them first inverts the sequence that makes the episode interesting.

   Correct. Roosevelt had won forty-six states in 1936 and faced a Court that had already killed two centerpiece programs. The plan died in the Senate, even his own party balked, but the Court began sustaining New Deal laws that spring.

   Congress passed the Second New Deal, including the WPA, the Wagner Act, and Social Security, in 1935. Roosevelt's problem was judicial review, not legislative resistance.

   The Constitution never sets the Court's size; Congress does, by statute, and the number had changed several times in the nineteenth century. That is exactly why Roosevelt could propose this as an ordinary bill, and why critics called it packing rather than amending.

8. Which of the following best describes the change in United States foreign policy between the Neutrality Acts of 1935–1937 and the Lend-Lease Act of March 1941?

   From collective security through the League of Nations to unilateral American action From a defensive alliance with Britain and France to a policy of strict neutrality From opposing Japanese expansion in Asia to accepting it in exchange for peace in the Pacific From treating all belligerents identically to openly supplying one side while remaining formally out of the war

   The United States never joined the League, so it had no collective-security policy to abandon. The Senate's refusal to ratify the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 is the reason the interwar record looks the way it does.

   This reverses the chronology. There was no alliance in the 1930s; the movement over these six years runs from neutrality toward belligerence, ending with American warships escorting convoys in the North Atlantic by autumn 1941.

   American policy toward Japan hardened rather than softened, with scrap-metal and then oil embargoes in 1940–1941 that Tokyo treated as a strangling of its war economy: one of the calculations behind the attack on December 7.

   Correct. The Neutrality Acts embargoed arms to every belligerent so that 1917 could not repeat itself. Cash-and-carry, destroyers-for-bases, and then Lend-Lease made Britain's survival American policy: undeclared war, months before Pearl Harbor.

9. Which of the following best supports the argument that the Second World War produced contradictory outcomes for civil rights in the United States?

   Executive Order 8802 barred discrimination in defense industries in June 1941, while Executive Order 9066 authorized removing Japanese Americans from the West Coast in February 1942 Executive Order 8802 was issued only after Japan's surrender in 1945 The Supreme Court struck down the wartime removal program in Korematsu v. United States The Double V campaign demanded victory over fascism in Europe but took no position on conditions at home

   Correct. Two presidential orders, eight months apart, justified by the same war: one opened defense jobs regardless of race, the other removed about 120,000 people by ancestry, two-thirds of them citizens. That pairing is the contradiction a strong answer names.

   The order came six months before Pearl Harbor, extracted by A. Philip Randolph's threat of a march on Washington. Dating it after the war erases the pressure from Black organizations that produced it.

   The Court upheld the exclusion in 1944. Justice Murphy's dissent called it a fall into racism, and Congress apologized and paid redress in 1988, but the ruling itself stood, which is why the case is cited as a failure of judicial protection.

   The Double V slogan, carried by the Pittsburgh Courier, meant victory abroad and victory over discrimination at home. Cutting the second V out removes the very argument that made the campaign notable.

10. Which of the following best explains why the Senate approved the United Nations Charter in 1945 by a vote of 89 to 2 after rejecting the Treaty of Versailles and the League in 1919–1920?

    Placing the organization's headquarters in the United States guaranteed American control of its decisions The Charter, unlike the League Covenant, gave the organization no power to authorize the use of force Depression and a second world war had discredited withdrawal from world affairs, and a permanent seat with a veto protected American freedom of action A constitutional amendment had lowered the threshold for approving treaties from two-thirds to a simple majority

    The headquarters went to New York, but location is not control, and the Soviet Union sat on the Security Council with the same veto. This answer mistakes a symbol for a mechanism.

    The Charter gives the Security Council authority to authorize force, and the Council did so in Korea in 1950. The veto, not powerlessness, is what made that authority acceptable in Washington.

    Correct. Senators who had watched the 1930s drew the lesson that staying out had not kept the country safe, and the veto answered the 1919 objection that membership would commit American forces without American consent.

    The two-thirds rule in Article II still applied, and the Charter cleared it easily. The contrast with 1919 is political, not procedural: Wilson faced a Republican Senate he refused to compromise with, while Truman brought senators of both parties to San Francisco.

Short answer

1. Source: President Theodore Roosevelt, Annual Message to Congress, December 6, 1904.

   Chronic wrongdoing, or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may … ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere the adherence of the United States to the Monroe Doctrine may force the United States … to the exercise of an international police power.

   Using the excerpt, answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE perspective about the role of the United States in the Western Hemisphere expressed in the excerpt.
   2. Briefly explain ONE specific historical development in the period 1898–1904 that led to the perspective expressed in the excerpt.
   3. Briefly explain ONE specific effect of United States policy toward Latin America in the period 1904–1934.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: the United States claims a right or duty to intervene in neighboring states that are unstable or fail to pay debts; the United States should act as a police power in the hemisphere under the Monroe Doctrine; a paternalistic view that "civilized" nations may supervise weaker neighbors. Do not accept: a restatement of the original Monroe Doctrine as opposition to European colonization without the new claim of American intervention; a general comment that Roosevelt favored a strong navy.
   • (b) Accept, with an explanation of the link: victory over Spain in 1898 and the acquisition of Puerto Rico and Guam; the Platt Amendment of 1901 making Cuba a protectorate; the 1902–1903 blockade of Venezuela by Britain, Germany, and Italy over unpaid debts, which raised the prospect of European forces collecting in the hemisphere; the 1903 Panamanian revolt and the canal treaty that made an isthmian canal an American strategic interest. Do not accept: developments outside 1898–1904, or the word "imperialism" with no specific event and no explanation.
   • (c) Accept, with an explanation: the 1905 customs receivership in the Dominican Republic; military occupations of Haiti (1915–1934), the Dominican Republic (1916–1924), or Nicaragua (1912–1933); Taft's dollar diplomacy expanding American bank lending and control; growth of anti-American nationalism in Latin America; the Good Neighbor Policy of 1933–1934, in which Roosevelt renounced intervention and gave up the Platt Amendment. Do not accept: post-1945 Cold War interventions, or effects in Asia or the Pacific.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a Roosevelt argues that the United States has the right and even the obligation to police the Western Hemisphere. He says that when a neighboring country becomes disorderly or cannot meet its obligations, the Monroe Doctrine forces the United States to step in and exercise "an international police power," which turns a policy of keeping Europe out into a claim to intervene itself.

   b The Venezuelan debt crisis of 1902–1903 led directly to this perspective. Britain, Germany, and Italy blockaded Venezuelan ports to collect unpaid loans, and Roosevelt realized that if European navies could collect debts by force in the Caribbean, the Monroe Doctrine was meaningless. His answer was to say that the United States would fix the problem first, so that Europe would have no excuse to come.

   c One effect was repeated American military occupation. Using the corollary's logic, the United States sent marines into Haiti in 1915 and kept them there until 1934, running the country's customs and finances. Occupations like this produced lasting resentment toward the United States across Latin America, which is a major reason Franklin Roosevelt announced the Good Neighbor Policy and pledged non-intervention in 1933–1934.

2. Answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE specific historical development that contributed to United States entry into the Second World War.
   2. Briefly explain ONE specific way mobilization for the Second World War changed American society on the home front.
   3. Briefly explain ONE specific way the Second World War changed the role of the United States in the world after 1945.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: the fall of France in June 1940; destroyers-for-bases (September 1940); Lend-Lease (March 1941); the Atlantic Charter (August 1941); American embargoes on scrap metal and oil against Japan in 1940–1941; the attack on Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941, and Germany's declaration of war days later. Do not accept: a bare assertion that "Hitler was evil," or interwar developments with no stated connection to American entry.
   • (b) Accept, with an explanation of how: roughly six million women entered the workforce, millions of them in war industries, and wartime childcare and payroll practices changed with them; more than a million African Americans left the South for defense jobs, and Executive Order 8802 barred discrimination in defense industries; the bracero program brought Mexican farm labor from 1942; rationing, price controls, and war bonds reordered household consumption; about 120,000 Japanese Americans were removed and confined under Executive Order 9066. Do not accept: naming a program without saying what changed for people; effects located entirely overseas.
   • (c) Accept, with an explanation: the United States held the only atomic weapons in 1945 and roughly half of world manufacturing output; it led the creation of the United Nations and took a permanent Security Council seat, with Senate approval 89 to 2; the Bretton Woods institutions built the postwar financial order around the dollar; occupation duties in Germany, Japan, and Korea left American forces permanently stationed abroad; rivalry with the Soviet Union led to containment from 1947. Do not accept: "the United States became a superpower" with no evidence; developments after 1980.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a The Lend-Lease Act of March 1941 contributed to American entry. It let Roosevelt hand Britain weapons and supplies on credit rather than for cash, which ended any pretense of neutrality and put American shipping in the middle of the Atlantic war months before Pearl Harbor.

   b Mobilization moved millions of people into new work. About six million women entered the workforce, and millions took industrial jobs that had been closed to them, building aircraft and ships, because war plants could not fill their lines while sixteen million men were in uniform. Many were pushed back out after 1945, but the war showed that the old assumption about who could do factory work was a rule, not a fact.

   c After 1945 the United States stopped trying to stay out of European affairs. It led the founding of the United Nations, and this time the Senate approved the Charter 89 to 2, in contrast to its rejection of the League in 1919–1920. That commitment, plus the wartime buildup and the atomic monopoly, made the United States the organizer of the Western alliance and led straight into containment by 1947.

Lesson 8.1 · Period 8 · CED topic 8.2

The Cold War, 1945–1980: containment from Truman to détente

The wartime allies became rivals almost immediately. Stalin wanted friendly governments between the Red Army and Germany; Washington wanted open markets and elected governments in Europe.

George Kennan's Long Telegram (February 1946) argued that Soviet hostility came from the Soviet system itself, not from anything the United States had done, and that the answer was patient, firm pressure wherever the Soviets pushed.

Lesson 8.2 · Period 8 · CED topics 8.3–8.4

The Red Scare and the postwar economy, 1945–1960

The Cold War came home fast. Soviet agents had in fact operated inside the wartime government, and that kernel of truth let politicians treat dissent as disloyalty. Meanwhile the economy did what almost no one predicted: instead of sliding back into depression it boomed for a generation, moving millions of Americans out of cities into new suburbs.

Lesson 8.3 · Period 8 · CED topics 8.5–8.6

Postwar culture and the early Civil Rights Movement, 1948–1957

Prosperity produced a shared national culture: families in new suburbs watched the same programs on the same nights. Critics pushed back on the sameness, and so, far more consequentially, did Black Americans who had helped defeat racist regimes abroad and come home to segregation.

Lesson 8.4 · Period 8 · CED topics 8.7–8.8

America as a world power and the Vietnam War, 1954–1975

Containment was designed for Europe, but the collapse of European empires moved the contest to Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East. In Vietnam, American policymakers read a nationalist war against French rule as a communist advance, and inherited the fight France lost in 1954.

Lesson 8.5 · Period 8 · CED topic 8.9

The Great Society, 1961–1968

Kennedy promised a New Frontier and got little of it through Congress. His assassination in November 1963 and the Democratic landslide of 1964 handed Lyndon Johnson the majorities Kennedy never had, and Johnson, a former Senate leader, knew exactly what to do with them.

Lesson 8.6 · Period 8 · CED topic 8.10

The African American Civil Rights Movement, 1960–1968

Brown had made segregation illegal without making it go away. Between 1960 and 1965 a younger generation forced the issue by putting themselves in places the law had failed to open (lunch counters, interstate buses, registration lines), and by choosing confrontations the cameras would carry north.

Lesson 8.7 · Period 8 · CED topics 8.11–8.12

New movements and the counterculture, 1962–1975

The civil rights movement supplied a template (organize, litigate, demonstrate, demand federal enforcement), and other groups adopted it. Women, Mexican Americans, Native Americans, and gay Americans each built organizations on that model, while a student left questioned the institutions all of them were petitioning.

Lesson 8.8 · Period 8 · CED topics 8.13–8.14

The environment and a society in transition, 1962–1980

The 1970s undid three assumptions the postwar boom had made routine: that energy was cheap, that growth was automatic, and that the presidency could be trusted. Environmental politics came first, as evidence piled up that prosperity carried costs no market was counting.

Unit 8 review · 10 multiple-choice · 2 short-answer

Period 8 review: 1945–1980

Ten multiple-choice items and two short-answer questions on containment, the Red Scare and the postwar boom, civil rights, Vietnam, the Great Society, and the movements and shocks of the 1970s: answer each stem before reading any rationale.

Multiple choice

1. Source: Secretary of State George C. Marshall, remarks at Harvard University, June 5, 1947.

   It is logical that the United States should do whatever it is able to do to assist in the return of normal economic health in the world, without which there can be no political stability and no assured peace. Our policy is directed not against any country or doctrine but against hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos.

   Which of the following best describes the purpose of the policy Marshall proposed in the excerpt?

   To transfer American military bases to Western European governments so that United States forces could withdraw from the continent To rebuild Western European economies so that communist parties would lose their appeal, while creating markets for American exports To require the recipient nations to form a military alliance with the United States as a condition of receiving aid To reverse the Truman Doctrine's commitment to resisting Soviet expansion

   American forces stayed and grew: NATO in 1949 and the Korean rearmament that followed put more troops in Europe, not fewer. The plan was about factories, currencies, and coal production, not base transfers.

   Correct. Marshall's denial that the policy targets a doctrine is diplomatic cover: the reasoning is that hungry, jobless voters in France and Italy would elect communists. Roughly $13 billion rebuilt Europe and bought American goods with the same dollars.

   The alliance was a separate step two years later. Aid came first and was offered even to the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, which refused it: proof that the immediate condition was economic cooperation, not a military pact.

   This is containment's economic half, not a reversal of it. The Truman administration treated the doctrine and the plan as two parts of one policy: the first supplied military aid to Greece and Turkey, the second supplied capital to Western Europe.

2. Which of the following best explains the shift in United States–Soviet relations between the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 and the signing of SALT I in 1972?

   The Soviet Union abandoned communism, removing the basis for the conflict The United States and the Soviet Union became allies against China following Nixon's 1972 visit to Beijing The Vietnam War ended in 1968, removing the principal source of superpower tension Having come close to nuclear war and facing the cost of ever-larger arsenals, both governments sought negotiated limits while continuing to compete elsewhere

   Soviet communism lasted until 1991. Reading détente as the end of the Cold War is a common compression of two very different moments almost twenty years apart.

   Nixon's opening to China was leverage, not alliance. Playing Beijing and Moscow against each other is precisely what pushed the Soviets toward arms talks: the point was triangular pressure, not a joint front.

   American combat in Vietnam ran until 1973 and Saigon fell in 1975. Tet in 1968 changed American politics, not the war's end date, and the war was an expression of superpower rivalry rather than its cause.

   Correct. The 1962 crisis produced a direct hotline and a 1963 test-ban treaty; a decade later SALT I capped missile launchers and the ABM Treaty limited defenses. Competition continued in Vietnam, the Middle East, and Africa throughout.

3. Description of: an aerial photograph of Levittown, New York, taken about 1950.

   Curving streets run across former potato fields. Several hundred nearly identical single-family houses stand on small lots, each set the same distance back from the road, each with a driveway and a young tree in the front yard. No apartment buildings, factories, or stores appear in the frame.

   The pattern shown in the photograph was most directly a result of which of the following?

   Federal mortgage guarantees under the GI Bill and the FHA combined with mass-production building methods The Interstate Highway Act of 1956, which paid for the streets pictured Urban renewal programs that cleared city neighborhoods and resettled their residents in the suburbs Wartime rent control, which made apartments in central cities unavailable to returning veterans

   Correct. Federally guaranteed low-interest mortgages made buying cheaper than renting, and the Levitts built on an assembly-line schedule to meet the subsidized demand. The same federal appraisal rules steered loans away from Black buyers, so this landscape was overwhelmingly white by design.

   The dates rule this out: the photograph precedes the highway act by about six years, and these local streets were laid by the builder. Interstates accelerated suburban growth in the later 1950s; they did not start it.

   Urban renewal did demolish city neighborhoods, but displaced residents were rarely able to buy in developments like this one, which used restrictive covenants. Treating suburbanization and urban renewal as one program hides who could move and who could not.

   Rent control affected some cities, but the housing shortage was a shortage of units after fifteen years of depression and war. The decisive change was on the demand side: federal credit that turned renters into buyers.

4. Which of the following best explains the collapse of Senator Joseph McCarthy's influence in 1954?

   The Supreme Court ruled that his investigations violated the First Amendment His charges were discredited when the Rosenbergs were acquitted of espionage Televised hearings let millions of viewers watch how he treated witnesses, and the Senate voted to censure him that December President Eisenhower denounced him in a nationwide address shortly after taking office

   No such ruling came. In this period the Court largely deferred to loyalty programs, which is why the check on McCarthy had to be political rather than judicial.

   The Rosenbergs were convicted in 1951 and executed in 1953. Real espionage cases were the kernel of truth that made sweeping accusations plausible, which is the point students most often miss about the second Red Scare.

   Correct. The Army-McCarthy hearings put his methods in front of a mass audience, and the Senate censured him 67 to 22 in December 1954. Note what did not happen: his evidence was never tested and found false; he lost the room, not an argument.

   Eisenhower deliberately refused to attack him in public, saying he would not get in the gutter with him. That reluctance is part of why McCarthy operated unchecked for four years.

5. Source: President Harry S. Truman, Executive Order 9981, July 26, 1948.

   It is hereby declared to be the policy of the President that there shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, color, religion or national origin. … This policy shall be put into effect as rapidly as possible, having due regard to the time required to effectuate any necessary changes …

   The order excerpted above is best understood in the context of which of the following?

   The Supreme Court's ruling in Brown v. Board of Education The employment provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 The end of Cold War competition for influence among newly independent nations in Africa and Asia Pressure from Black veterans and civil rights organizations after a war against racist regimes, reinforced by the growing weight of Black voters in northern cities

   Brown came six years later, in 1954. The order is one of the developments that built pressure toward Brown, not a consequence of it: watch the direction of causation on any 1940s civil rights item.

   The 1964 act is sixteen years later and reached private employers, not the military. An executive order also differs from a statute in an important way: it needed no Congress, which is exactly why Truman used one against a southern filibuster.

   That competition was beginning, not ending, and it cut the other way: American segregation was a standing propaganda gift to the Soviets, which gave presidents a foreign-policy reason to act on civil rights.

   Correct. Black servicemen returned from a war against Nazi racism to segregated units and southern violence, and organizations publicized it in an election year when Truman needed northern Black votes. The escape clause about the "time required" is why full integration waited for the manpower needs of the Korean War.

6. Which of the following best explains the significance of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution of August 1964?

   It authorized the President to use force without a declaration of war and served as the legal basis for escalation until Congress responded with the War Powers Act in 1973 It was a formal congressional declaration of war against North Vietnam It required the President to withdraw American military advisers from South Vietnam within sixty days It committed the United States to defend South Vietnam under the terms of the 1954 Geneva Accords

   Correct. Johnson began sustained bombing and sent combat troops in 1965 on this authority alone, and Congress tried to claw the power back only after the war went wrong, passing the War Powers Act over Nixon's veto in 1973.

   Congress has not declared war since 1942. Calling this a declaration erases what made it constitutionally important: an open-ended grant of authority with no time limit, passed 416 to 0 and 88 to 2 on a briefing members could not verify.

   This describes the War Powers Act's reporting and sixty-day rules, passed nine years later. The 1964 resolution imposed no limit of any kind on the President.

   The United States never signed the Geneva Accords, which split Vietnam temporarily at the 17th parallel and called for elections that were never held. American commitment to Saigon grew out of containment policy, not that agreement.

7. Which of the following best describes a long-term effect of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965?

   It barred immigration from Asia for the first time in American history It admitted immigrants in proportion to each nationality's share of the 1890 census By replacing national-origins quotas with preferences for family reunification and occupational skills, it shifted immigration toward Asia and Latin America It granted legal status to millions of immigrants already living in the country without authorization

   Asian exclusion ran the other way and was older: the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the 1924 quotas. The 1965 law repealed that framework, and Asian immigration rose sharply afterward.

   That is the formula of the National Origins Act of 1924, the system the 1965 law abolished. Confusing the two reverses the entire century's immigration policy.

   Correct. Its sponsors expected European family networks to dominate the new preferences; instead the largest flows came from Asia and Latin America, reshaping American cities and schools over the following half century.

   Legalization for people already present was the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, which also penalized employers who knowingly hired unauthorized workers.

8. Source: Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (the Kerner Commission), appointed by President Johnson, March 1968.

   Our Nation is moving toward two societies, one black, one white — separate and unequal. … Segregation and poverty have created in the racial ghetto a destructive environment totally unknown to most white Americans.

   The conclusion in the excerpt best supports which of the following claims about the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965?

   The two laws had failed to end legally mandated segregation in the South The laws dismantled legal segregation but did not reach the housing, employment, and policing conditions that sustained inequality, especially outside the South The commission concluded that the disorders of 1967 had been organized by outside agitators The commission recommended repealing both laws as counterproductive

   Those laws worked at what they targeted: segregated public accommodations largely ended, and Black registration in Mississippi went from under ten percent to more than half within a few years. The commission's point is that de jure victory left de facto conditions untouched.

   Correct. A federal commission appointed by the president who signed both laws reported in 1968 that the country was still splitting in two, which is why the movement's next fights were over housing, jobs, and police practice, and why the Fair Housing Act passed that April.

   The report explicitly rejected the conspiracy explanation and pointed instead to discrimination, unemployment, poor housing, and policing. Naming the misdiagnosis it refused is part of what made the report controversial.

   The commission called for more federal action, not less: large investments in housing, jobs, and education. Johnson, facing Vietnam's costs and an election year, largely shelved the recommendations.

9. Source: Title IX, Education Amendments of 1972, signed June 23, 1972.

   No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.

   The statute excerpted above is best understood as an example of which of the following?

   The ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment A Supreme Court ruling establishing a constitutional right to equal treatment regardless of sex A measure that applied only to athletic programs at colleges and universities The extension to other groups of the civil rights movement's strategy of attaching antidiscrimination conditions to federal funding

   Congress sent the ERA to the states that same year, but it was never ratified: STOP ERA helped stall it three states short by 1982. Title IX is a statute Congress passed, which is precisely why it took effect while the amendment did not.

   This is legislation, not adjudication. The distinction matters: a statute can be amended or its enforcement loosened by a later administration, while a constitutional holding is far harder to undo.

   Athletics became the most visible application, but the text covers any education program or activity: admissions, hiring, and later sexual harassment in schools. Reading the famous consequence back into the text narrows the law.

   Correct. The wording tracks Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which used federal money as leverage against racial discrimination; here the same lever is aimed at sex discrimination, showing how one movement's tools were borrowed by the next.

10. Which of the following best explains the economic difficulties Americans experienced in the 1970s?

    Oil shocks, growing foreign competition, and prices rising alongside unemployment discredited the assumption that inflation and joblessness moved in opposite directions Ending the dollar's convertibility into gold in 1971 set off a deflationary spiral of falling wages and prices Sharp cuts in federal spending during the Vietnam War reduced overall demand The Federal Reserve held interest rates near zero for the entire decade

    Correct. The OPEC embargo of 1973–1974 quadrupled oil prices while Japanese and German manufacturers took market share. "Stagflation" mattered because the postwar policy toolkit assumed you could trade a little inflation for lower unemployment, and both climbed together.

    The direction is backward: the 1970s were the most inflationary decade of the century, not deflationary. Leaving gold let the dollar fall, which raised import prices rather than lowering them.

    Johnson financed the war and the Great Society without an early tax increase, so deficit spending in the late 1960s is usually named among the causes of the inflation that followed, not a cut in demand.

    Rates went the other way at the end of the decade: Paul Volcker's Federal Reserve drove them into the high teens after 1979 to break inflation, and the recession that followed pushed unemployment to 10.8 percent in 1982.

Short answer

1. Source: President Dwight D. Eisenhower, farewell address to the nation, January 17, 1961.

   In the councils of government, we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military-industrial complex. The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist. We must never let the weight of this combination endanger our liberties or democratic processes.

   Using the excerpt, answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE perspective about the postwar United States expressed in the excerpt.
   2. Briefly explain ONE specific historical development in the period 1945–1961 that led to the perspective expressed in the excerpt.
   3. Briefly explain ONE specific effect of the development described in the excerpt on the United States in the period 1961–1975.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: a permanent arms industry and military establishment could gain undue influence over government decisions; democratic control of policy is at risk from concentrated defense interests; citizens must stay alert because this combination will not go away. Do not accept: "Eisenhower opposed the military" or "Eisenhower wanted to disarm"; a restatement of the phrase "military-industrial complex" with no perspective attached.
   • (b) Accept, with an explanation of the link: NSC-68 (1950) and the tripling of defense spending after North Korea invaded; the Korean War itself; the creation of a permanent peacetime establishment through the National Security Act of 1947 (Department of Defense, CIA, NSC); the hydrogen bomb and the arms race; Sputnik (1957) and the resulting missile-gap debate, NASA, and the National Defense Education Act. Do not accept: World War II mobilization alone with no link to the postwar permanence, or developments after 1961.
   • (c) Accept, with an explanation: escalation in Vietnam after the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution and the costs that undercut Great Society programs; defense contracting driving Sun Belt growth in California, Texas, and the Southeast; the space program and the 1969 moon landing; guns-versus-butter inflation in the late 1960s; the antiwar movement's critique of the war economy; congressional pushback such as the War Powers Act of 1973. Do not accept: effects dated after 1975, or a general statement that "the Cold War continued" with no specific development.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a Eisenhower warns that the permanent partnership between the armed forces and the arms industry has become powerful enough to shape government policy for its own benefit. His perspective is that this influence is a structural danger to democracy, not the fault of any one person, and that it will persist, so citizens have to watch it constantly.

   b The Korean War led to this view. After North Korea invaded in 1950, the United States adopted the NSC-68 recommendation of permanent rearmament and roughly tripled defense spending, and it never returned to prewar levels after the 1953 armistice. That turned wartime production into a standing industry with a permanent lobby in Washington, which is exactly the combination Eisenhower describes.

   c One effect was the escalation in Vietnam. Between 1965 and 1968 Johnson committed more than half a million troops and enormous spending on the war under the authority of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, and because he refused to choose between the war and the Great Society, inflation rose and antipoverty programs were funded far below what their designers had planned.

2. Answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE specific difference between the goals or tactics of the African American civil rights movement before 1965 and those of Black Power advocates after 1965.
   2. Briefly explain ONE specific historical development in the period 1954–1968 that contributed to that difference.
   3. Briefly explain ONE specific way the African American civil rights movement influenced another movement for rights in the period 1960–1975.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: integration into existing institutions versus Black self-determination and separate institutions; nonviolent direct action and interracial coalition versus armed self-defense and Black-led organizations; a legal and legislative focus in the South versus economic and community power in northern cities. Do not accept: "Black Power was violent and the civil rights movement was peaceful" with nothing more; a difference of personalities alone with no goal or tactic named.
   • (b) Accept, with an explanation of the link: Brown (1954) and "all deliberate speed" producing a decade of delay; violence against nonviolent protesters at Birmingham (1963), Freedom Summer (1964), and Selma (1965); the Civil Rights and Voting Rights Acts changing little about northern housing, schools, and jobs; the Watts and Detroit disorders and the Kerner Commission's 1968 report; Malcolm X's argument for self-defense and self-determination and his assassination in 1965; the seating fight over the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party in 1964. Do not accept: developments outside 1954–1968, or an event named with no explanation of how it produced the shift.
   • (c) Accept, with an explanation: the United Farm Workers' use of nonviolent marches and a national consumer boycott (1965–1970); the women's movement's use of federal antidiscrimination law, including Title VII, NOW (1966), and Title IX (1972); the occupation of Alcatraz by Indians of All Tribes (1969) and the American Indian Movement's occupation of Wounded Knee (1973); the gay rights movement after Stonewall (1969); the disability rights movement's use of Section 504. Do not accept: a group named with no borrowed tactic, strategy, or legal tool identified.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a Before 1965 the main goal was integration, pursued through nonviolent direct action and lawsuits aimed at getting federal law changed: sit-ins, Freedom Rides, and the marches that produced the Civil Rights Act. After 1965 Black Power advocates such as Stokely Carmichael argued for Black control of Black communities, including separate institutions and armed self-defense, rather than acceptance into white institutions.

   b The limits of the 1964 and 1965 laws contributed to that shift. Those acts ended segregation by law and opened southern voting, but they did nothing about the segregated housing, school funding, unemployment, and policing that shaped Black life in northern cities. When disorders broke out in Watts in 1965 and Detroit in 1967, younger activists concluded that legal equality without economic power was not enough, a judgment the Kerner Commission itself echoed in 1968.

   c The United Farm Workers borrowed the movement's tactics directly. César Chávez and Dolores Huerta used nonviolent marches, a fast, and a national consumer boycott of table grapes from 1965 to 1970, pressuring California growers through shoppers in distant cities much as bus boycotts had pressured southern businesses. The union won its first contracts in 1970.

Lesson 9.1 · Period 9 · CED topic 9.2

Reagan and the conservative resurgence, 1980–1989

Jimmy Carter's last year ran on bad news: inflation near 13 percent, interest rates above 20 percent, and fifty-two Americans held hostage in Tehran. Ronald Reagan had argued for fifteen years that the federal government had outgrown what it could do well. In November 1980 he carried 44 states and Republicans took the Senate, backed by business conservatives, Sunbelt suburbanites, hawks, and newly organized white evangelicals.

Lesson 9.2 · Period 9 · CED topic 9.3

The end of the Cold War, 1981–1991

Reagan's first term hardened the Cold War: bigger defense budgets, the Soviet Union named an evil empire in March 1983, and that same month the Strategic Defense Initiative, a missile shield critics nicknamed Star Wars. Then the other side changed. Mikhail Gorbachev took power in March 1985 with an economy that could not carry both the arms race and its own people, and answered with glasnost and perestroika.

Lesson 9.3 · Period 9 · CED topics 9.4–9.6

A changing economy, immigration, and the twenty-first century

The Cold War ended and the economy kept changing anyway. Cheap computing and the commercial internet after 1993 knit production together across borders while factory employment fell. Bill Clinton, elected in 1992, governed from that center (freer trade abroad, a smaller welfare state at home) before the century turned with a shock.

Unit 9 review · 10 multiple-choice · 2 short-answer

Period 9 review: 1980–Present

Ten multiple-choice items and two short-answer questions on the conservative resurgence, the end of the Cold War, and a globalizing economy: the smallest period on the exam by weight, and the one students most often answer from memory of the news rather than from evidence.

Multiple choice

1. Description of: a line graph of the top marginal federal individual income tax rate, 1975–1990, with a note printed beneath it.

   The line holds flat at 70 percent through 1980, steps down to 50 percent in 1982, runs level through 1986, then drops again to 28 percent by 1988 and stays near that level to 1990. The note beneath the graph reports that the federal debt roughly tripled over the same years.

   The trend shown in the graph most directly reflects which of the following?

   A bipartisan effort to balance the federal budget by reducing government revenue A shift in federal revenue from the income tax to tariffs on imported goods Tax reductions made possible by the end of the Cold War and the resulting cuts in defense spending The adoption of supply-side arguments that lower marginal rates would free capital for investment and generate growth

   The note under the graph contradicts this. Deficits grew every year of the decade, and the 1986 act was designed to be revenue-neutral by broadening the base, not to close a deficit.

   Tariffs have been a minor share of federal revenue since the income tax was authorized by the Sixteenth Amendment in 1913. Payroll and income taxes, not customs duties, carried the budget in the 1980s.

   The chronology fails: the cuts begin in 1981, eight years before the Berlin Wall opened, and defense spending rose sharply in exactly those years. That combination of lower rates and higher military outlays is why the debt grew.

   Correct. The Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 took the top rate from 70 to 50 percent and the Tax Reform Act of 1986 took it to 28. Supporters argued growth would replace the revenue; the note about tripling debt is the evidence that, alongside a defense buildup, it did not.

2. Which of the following best explains the significance of President Reagan's response to the air traffic controllers' strike of August 1981?

   It was the first time a president had used federal power against a strike It led Congress to repeal the Wagner Act's guarantee of collective bargaining Firing more than 11,000 federal employees signaled that employers could permanently replace strikers, accelerating the decline of organized labor It ended the practice of federal employees belonging to unions

   Presidents had intervened against strikers since the nineteenth century: Cleveland sent troops against the Pullman strike in 1894, and Truman seized the steel mills in 1952. What was new in 1981 was mass permanent replacement, not federal involvement.

   The Wagner Act of 1935 was never repealed. Labor's decline came from the enforcement climate, deindustrialization, and employer tactics rather than from the loss of the underlying statute: a distinction worth stating on an exam.

   Correct. The controllers struck illegally, so the firings were legally defensible, and private employers read the signal: the union share of the workforce fell through the 1980s and 1990s as replacement became a standard tactic in bargaining.

   Federal workers still belong to unions today; PATCO itself was decertified, not unions generally. Federal employees have never had the right to strike, which is what made this particular walkout illegal.

3. Source: President Ronald Reagan, First Inaugural Address, January 20, 1981.

   In this present crisis, government is not the solution to our problem; government is the problem. From time to time we've been tempted to believe that society has become too complex to be managed by self-rule, that government by an elite group is superior to government for, by, and of the people.

   The argument in the excerpt is best understood as a response to which of the following?

   Stagflation, the energy crises, and the collapse of public confidence in federal institutions during the 1970s The end of the Cold War and the debate over what to do with the resulting savings in defense spending The Supreme Court's decision in Roe v. Wade and the social agenda of the New Right The end of fixed exchange rates when the dollar left gold convertibility in 1971

   Correct. Reagan spoke into inflation near 13 percent, interest rates above 20 percent, a second oil shock, and the hostages in Tehran, after a decade in which Vietnam and Watergate had cut trust in Washington to roughly a quarter of Americans.

   The Cold War had nine years to run when Reagan said this, and his first term raised defense spending sharply. Sourcing questions punish vague dating: name the month, not the decade.

   Abortion and school prayer mattered enormously to the coalition that elected him, but this passage is about economic management and self-rule. Attributing every Reagan statement to the New Right's social agenda ignores what the words actually address.

   Leaving gold in 1971 contributed to the inflation of the decade, but it is one technical cause inside the broader crisis the speech names. The excerpt indicts the size and competence of government, not an exchange-rate regime.

4. Which of the following best explains the growth of the New Right's political influence between 1972 and 1984?

   The Republican Party's endorsement of the Equal Rights Amendment brought socially conservative voters into the party Organizations such as STOP ERA and the Moral Majority mobilized religious conservatives around opposition to the ERA and abortion and support for school prayer Rising union membership across the South gave conservative candidates a new organizational base The Supreme Court's ruling in Engel v. Vitale permitted states to compose prayers for public schools

   The reverse happened: the Republican platform had supported the ERA for decades and dropped that support in 1980. The amendment's defeat in 1982, three states short, was a New Right victory, not a party endorsement.

   Correct. Phyllis Schlafly's STOP ERA campaign and Jerry Falwell's Moral Majority, founded in 1979, turned churches into precinct organizations and delivered white evangelical voters to Reagan in 1980 and 1984.

   Union membership fell steadily in this period, and the South was the least unionized region. Sun Belt growth built on defense contracts, air conditioning, and non-union manufacturing is the demographic story here.

   Engel v. Vitale (1962) barred official school prayer. Getting the holding backward removes the grievance: it was the ban, not a permission, that religious conservatives organized against for the next twenty years.

5. Description of: a photograph taken in Berlin on the night of November 9–10, 1989.

   Dozens of people stand on top of the concrete wall in front of the Brandenburg Gate. Some hold flags; others chip at the wall with hammers. East German border guards watch from below without intervening, and crowds fill the street on both sides.

   The event shown in the photograph was most directly the result of which of the following?

   The signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty in December 1987 The formation of the United States–led coalition that fought the Persian Gulf War Gorbachev's refusal to use Soviet force to keep communist governments in Eastern Europe in power, which emboldened mass protest movements A NATO military operation undertaken to reunify Germany

   The INF Treaty eliminated a class of missiles and allowed on-site inspection; it did not touch the border regime in Berlin. It is evidence that superpower relations were thawing, which is context rather than cause.

   Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, nine months after this night, and the coalition fought in early 1991. The Gulf War is a consequence of the post–Cold War order, not a cause of the Wall's opening.

   Correct. The detail that carries the photograph is the guards standing by. Once Moscow made clear it would not repeat 1956 or 1968, East German officials had no backing for force, and the crowds in Leipzig and Berlin did the rest.

   No NATO operation took place. Germany reunified by negotiation in October 1990 with Soviet consent, which is itself a measure of how much had changed since 1985.

6. A historian arguing that no single cause ended the Cold War would most likely cite which of the following?

   The American defense buildup of the 1980s bankrupted the Soviet economy by itself The Soviet Union collapsed because it lost its war in Afghanistan The Berlin Wall opened because Reagan demanded it at the Brandenburg Gate in 1987 The American buildup raised the cost of competing, Gorbachev chose reform and restraint, and popular movements in Poland and East Germany pushed governments out

   This is a single-cause claim, and it also overstates the mechanism: the Soviet economy was stagnating for structural reasons well before 1981, including low productivity and dependence on oil exports.

   Afghanistan drained money and legitimacy, but Soviet troops withdrew in 1989 and the union survived two more years. Naming it as the cause substitutes one factor for the combination.

   The Wall opened twenty-nine months after that speech, for reasons that ran through Warsaw, Budapest, Leipzig, and Moscow. Treating a speech as proof of cause is the classic post hoc error on this topic.

   Correct. Multiple variables interacting across different levels (superpower pressure, decisions at the top in Moscow, and mass movements from below) is what earns the complexity point on an essay and what this stem is testing.

7. Which of the following best describes the significance of the Persian Gulf War of 1991 for United States foreign policy?

   It marked the first commitment of American ground forces to the Middle East since 1945 It showed that the United States would organize large United Nations–authorized coalitions to reverse aggression in a world with no Soviet counterweight It removed Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq It ended the American commitment to permanent alliances such as NATO

   American forces had gone into Lebanon in 1958 and again in 1982–1984, and the Carter Doctrine of 1980 had already declared the Persian Gulf a vital interest. The scale in 1991 was new; the commitment was not.

   Correct. A Security Council authorization that Moscow did not veto was itself the news: for forty years superpower rivalry had frozen the Council, and the coalition of some three dozen nations defined how Washington would act in the 1990s.

   The coalition's mandate was to expel Iraq from Kuwait, and it stopped at that. Saddam Hussein stayed in power until the 2003 invasion: conflating the two wars is the most common error on this question.

   NATO survived the enemy it was built against and enlarged eastward later in the decade. The debate after 1991 was over what alliances were for, not whether to abandon them.

8. Source: President Bill Clinton, State of the Union address, January 23, 1996.

   We know big government does not have all the answers. We know there's not a program for every problem. … The era of big government is over. But we cannot go back to the time when our citizens were left to fend for themselves.

   The excerpt best reflects which of the following developments of the 1990s?

   The acceptance by many Democrats of limits on federal social programs, reflected in the 1996 law replacing Aid to Families with Dependent Children with time-limited block grants The Republican Party's abandonment of tax reduction as a governing priority A return to the Great Society's approach of creating new federal antipoverty entitlements The elimination of Social Security and Medicare as federal programs

   Correct. A Democratic president conceding the argument's frame is the point: after the 1994 midterms, Clinton signed welfare reform in August 1996, ending a federal entitlement created in the New Deal. The final sentence is his limit: he keeps a floor while giving up the frame.

   Tax cuts remained central to Republican policy throughout, and the 2001 and 2003 cuts followed. Nothing in the excerpt speaks to the other party's priorities.

   The direction is the reverse. Welfare reform converted an entitlement into capped block grants with work requirements and a five-year limit: a rollback of the Great Society's approach, not a revival.

   Both programs continued and grew; Clinton in fact defended them in the budget standoffs that shut the government down in 1995–1996. Treating "big government is over" as literal misreads a political slogan.

9. Which of the following best explains the decline of manufacturing employment in the United States after 1980?

   Federal minimum-wage increases made American manufacturing unprofitable American consumers stopped buying manufactured goods in favor of services Automation raised output per worker while containerized shipping, digital communication, and trade agreements such as NAFTA made production abroad cheaper The end of the Cold War cut defense manufacturing to almost nothing

   The federal minimum wage lost value to inflation across much of this period and sits below most manufacturing wages anyway. Single-variable explanations of deindustrialization rarely survive contact with the output data.

   Americans bought more manufactured goods than ever; a growing share was imported. Consumption shifting toward services is real but does not explain rising domestic output with falling factory employment.

   Correct. Manufacturing output kept rising while employment fell, which is the fact that rules out a simple collapse in demand: fewer workers made more goods, and the work that remained labor-intensive moved to lower-wage countries.

   Defense procurement did fall in the early 1990s, and some regions felt it sharply, but the decline in factory jobs began in the 1970s, spanned every sector, and continued through the defense buildup after 2001.

10. Description of: a table showing the region of birth of legal permanent residents admitted to the United States, by decade.

    In the 1950s roughly two-thirds of admissions came from Europe and Canada and fewer than one in ten from Asia. In the 1990s roughly half came from Latin America and the Caribbean, about three in ten from Asia, and about one in seven from Europe.

    The change shown in the table was most directly the result of which of the following?

    The National Origins Act of 1924 The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which ended national-origins quotas in favor of family reunification and occupational preferences The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 The USA PATRIOT Act of 2001

    The 1924 act produced the earlier pattern, not the later one: quotas pegged to the 1890 census favored northern and western Europe and barred most Asian immigration. The table shows that system being undone.

    Correct. Its sponsors expected European families to dominate the new preference categories; instead chain migration and skill preferences drew the largest flows from Asia and Latin America, reshaping American cities over the next half century.

    The 1986 law legalized about three million people already in the country and penalized employers who knowingly hired unauthorized workers. It changed status for people already present rather than the regional sources of new admissions.

    The Patriot Act expanded surveillance and record-gathering authority after September 11, 2001. It postdates the change shown and did not rewrite the admissions preference system.

Short answer

1. Source: President Ronald Reagan, remarks at the Brandenburg Gate, West Berlin, June 12, 1987.

   We welcome change and openness; for we believe that freedom and security go together … General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization: Come here to this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!

   Using the excerpt, answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE perspective about the Cold War expressed in the excerpt.
   2. Briefly explain ONE specific historical development in the period 1979–1987 that led to the perspective expressed in the excerpt.
   3. Briefly explain ONE specific historical development in the period 1989–1991 that contributed to the end of the Cold War.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: the division of Europe is the responsibility of the Soviet government and can be ended by a Soviet decision; freedom and security reinforce rather than threaten each other; public pressure and moral confrontation are legitimate instruments of Cold War policy; reform in the Soviet bloc should be tested by a concrete act. Do not accept: "Reagan wanted the wall to come down" with nothing further; a claim that Reagan was announcing the end of the Cold War.
   • (b) Accept, with an explanation of the link: the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and the collapse of détente; the Reagan defense buildup and the Strategic Defense Initiative announced in March 1983; the 1983 "evil empire" address; the Solidarity movement in Poland and the martial law imposed in 1981; Gorbachev's accession in March 1985 and the glasnost and perestroika reforms; the Geneva and Reykjavik summits of 1985–1986 and the arms talks under way in 1987. Do not accept: developments outside 1979–1987, or a named event with no explanation of how it shaped the argument.
   • (c) Accept, with an explanation: Gorbachev's refusal to use force to sustain Eastern European governments, and the revolutions of 1989 in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Romania; the opening of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989; German reunification in October 1990; the failed August 1991 coup in Moscow; the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991. Do not accept: the INF Treaty of 1987 or other pre-1989 events; "communism failed" with no specific development.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a Reagan argues that the Cold War division of Europe is something the Soviet government chose and could end, and that openness would make the Soviet Union stronger rather than more vulnerable, since he says freedom and security go together. By naming Gorbachev and demanding one concrete act, he treats the Wall as the test of whether Soviet reform is real.

   b Gorbachev's reforms after 1985 led to this argument. He came to power with an economy that could not support both the arms race and its own people, and he responded with glasnost and perestroika and agreed to serious arms negotiations. Reagan's speech is written to push a reformer who was already moving, which is why it offers Gorbachev peace and prosperity if he opens the gate rather than simply denouncing him.

   c The revolutions of 1989 contributed most directly. Gorbachev made clear that Soviet troops would not prop up allied regimes, and once that guarantee was gone, movements such as Solidarity in Poland forced real elections and communist governments fell across the region, culminating in the opening of the Berlin Wall in November 1989. Without Soviet force behind them, the governments the Cold War had created could not survive.

2. Answer (a), (b), and (c).

   1. Briefly describe ONE specific way the United States economy changed in the period 1980–2010.
   2. Briefly explain ONE specific cause of the change you described in part (a).
   3. Briefly explain ONE specific way the federal government responded to economic change in the period 1993–2010.
   Your response
   Scoring notes

   • (a) Accept: manufacturing employment fell while service and information work grew; income and wealth became more concentrated at the top; the economy became more globally integrated through trade and offshoring; computing and the commercial internet reshaped work after the mid-1990s; finance grew as a share of the economy and of corporate profits. Do not accept: "the economy got worse" or "there were recessions" with no specific structural change named.
   • (b) Accept, with an explanation of how it produced the change in (a): automation and rising output per worker; containerized shipping and digital communication lowering the cost of distant production; trade agreements such as NAFTA (1994) and the WTO (1995); deregulation of finance and transportation; declining union density after the PATCO firings; lower top marginal tax rates after 1981 and 1986. Do not accept: a cause that does not match the change described in (a), or a cause named with no mechanism.
   • (c) Accept, with an explanation: NAFTA's ratification and the creation of the WTO; the 1996 welfare law replacing AFDC with time-limited block grants; financial deregulation in 1999; the bank rescue and stimulus legislation of 2008–2009 and the Federal Reserve's emergency lending; the Affordable Care Act of 2010; Dodd-Frank financial regulation in 2010. Do not accept: responses dated before 1993 or after 2010, or a law named with no explanation of what it did.
   Show a 3/3 response

   a One change was the shift out of manufacturing. Factory employment fell steadily after 1980, especially in the Midwest and the Northeast, while jobs in services, health care, retail, and information work grew. Manufacturing output itself kept rising, so the change was in who worked in factories, not in whether the country made things.

   b A major cause was the falling cost of producing and moving goods abroad. Container shipping and cheap digital communication let firms run supply chains across borders, and agreements such as NAFTA in 1994 and membership in the WTO in 1995 lowered the tariffs that had protected domestic plants. Automation did the rest, since each remaining worker produced far more than in 1980.

   c In 2008 and 2009 the federal government responded to the financial crisis with emergency intervention. Congress approved a large bank rescue after Lehman Brothers failed, and in 2009 it passed a stimulus package of spending and tax cuts while the Federal Reserve lent heavily to keep credit moving. The scale of the response revived the argument, running back to the New Deal, about how far Washington should go to stabilize a private economy.

DBQ 1 · Period 3 · 60 minutes (15 reading + 45 writing)

Evaluate the extent to which the American Revolution changed American society in the period 1775–1800.

DBQ 2 · Period 4 · 60 minutes (15 reading + 45 writing)

Evaluate the extent to which the Market Revolution changed the lives of women in the United States in the period 1800–1848.

DBQ 3 · Period 5 · 60 minutes (15 reading + 45 writing)

Evaluate the extent to which Reconstruction changed the lives of African Americans in the South in the period 1865–1877.

DBQ 4 · Periods 6–7 · 60 minutes (15 reading + 45 writing)

Evaluate the extent to which industrialization changed the relationship between workers and employers in the United States in the period 1865–1900.

DBQ 5 · Period 7 · 60 minutes (15 reading + 45 writing)

Evaluate the extent to which the New Deal changed the role of the federal government in American life in the period 1929–1945.

LEQ 1 · Period 2 · 40 minutes

Evaluate the extent to which religion shaped the development of the British North American colonies in the period 1607–1754.

LEQ 2 · Periods 3–4 · 40 minutes

Evaluate the extent of change in ideas about American democracy in the period 1790–1840.

LEQ 3 · Period 5 · 40 minutes

Evaluate the extent to which the Civil War and Reconstruction changed the power of the federal government in the period 1861–1877.

LEQ 4 · Periods 6–7 · 40 minutes

Evaluate the extent to which immigration changed American society in the period 1865–1924.

LEQ 5 · Period 8 · 40 minutes

Evaluate the extent to which the Cold War shaped American politics and society in the period 1945–1980.

Unit recap

Unit recap

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